Herbal medicine and medicinal plants

Forwarded from Ethnobotany group, thought it might be of interest to this
group also:

Dear Colleagues,

I have just launched a new web site that I hope can be a group endeavor. In
a way, this is my penance for writing a book that, if successful, would
further endanger plants that are already in desperate need of protection. I
have tried to think of everything that people need to know in order to
wildcraft ethically, cultivate, conserve, and protect our medicine cabinet.

The site is up: http://www.cancerplants.com/

The links are mostly to "under construction" because the idea is not to make
this "my" site but rather to invite others to submit articles on medicinal
plants used in cancer treatment. I want to focus on the habitat, the
necessary conditions for growth, the availability of seeds or young plants,
and the whole process whereby a plant moves from its place of growth to its
final service as medicine.

I will give people as much space as they need and reciprocate with whatever
links, credits, and so forth as are appropriate. I would like pictures that
aid correct botanical identification and while it is perfectly just to
describe the traditional medicinal uses of the plant as well as scientific
researches, this is not the main purpose of the site. This said, I think
the will to protect the plants will be stronger if people do, in fact,
understand their importance.

As some of you know, I am more a healer/writer than botanist or even
herbalist. Actually, if the truth be known, I'm not a botanist at all, but
since I love anthropology and medicine and plants, I figure I belong on this
list. The dilemma I often face when people propose developing a cure for
AIDS or cancer is that there is not enough plant material at this time. As
a healer, one part of me is inclined to make excessive demands for plant
material, but as an herbalist, I totally understand the short-sightedness of
this approach. As I said, this site is my penance and my effort to do what
I can to raise consciousness around the need for sustainable practices, to
encourage those who are seeking new occupations or hobbies to plant what is
most needed, and most of all to foster love of life at a time when there are
potential dastardly threats to all I cherish.

Many blessings,

Ingrid Naiman
http://www.cancerplants.com/



Dear colleagues,

Does the traditional healers get his knowledge from his personnal
research???

Believe me ; 1 - the traditional healer getting money from a company here
should be sued by many other ones and the family of their ancestors not
involved any more;
2 - a traditional healer making happily in his family on
the coast 500 to 1000 $US a year might not live better at all getting money
from a large pharmaceutical company.

If everyone recognises that it is not faire that big companies make so much
money and there is no return on the field, what I see makes me also think
that the only solution can only ly in specific legal rules enacted at the
national level. One has to make sure that the income generated are invested
properly in support of the communities who were using the ressource but
first of all for the benefit of the genetic ressources and its habitat
(which will have to be linked to the development of the local populations)
and first of all not depriving the former beneficiairies of the ressource.

I am perplex however to see that a lot of people seem to forget that major
problems are happening to the ressources which might result in no more
availability of certain ressources, therefore no use of rules for benefit
sharing. Indeed I see two or three of the main exported medicinal plants of
Madagascar being overexploited. The possible overexploitation has been
pointed out many years ago and nothing has been done yet or very little.
Getting money for the management of the ressource?

Please also keep in mind that a key solution might be to promote ways to
carry on relying on localy sustainably collected plant to ensure local
population benefit and interest in biodiversity. Again why one synthetized
molecule when a plant extract can show to work and present no danger?

Regards

Olivier Behra

Dear Subscribers,

I should like to reply to Yvette van Wijk's request for assistance with
antimicrobial testing of traditional medicines, as well as to comment on the
issue of quality assurance of these medicines.

The South African Traditional Medicines Research Group at the School of
Pharmacy, University of the Western Cape has, for the past 4 years, been
engaged in setting standards for the quality, safety and efficacy of some 60
South African plant species used as traditional medicines. This has included
testing for antimicrobial (antibacterial and antifungal), cardiac,
antipyretic, antidiarrhoeal, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-asthma
activity, TLC and HPLC fingerprinting, chemical testing, and other standards
for identification e.g. microscopy. The information has been assembled in
the form of a monograph for each species, in WHO format. Bioactivity
screening has been carried out using only aqueous whole plant extracts, in
concentrations approximating those used in traditional medical practice. The
results have been astonishing and very encouraging.

The work is on-going and funded by the South African Medical Research
Council. For further information, please contact Evan Springfield at:
esprings@uwc.ac.za.

Best wishes
Gillian Scott

Greetings to the Group,
I invite you all to read this article on Traditional
Medicinal knowledge about common herbs used in treatment of
intestinal worms in Chhattisgarh, India.
Research Note - P.Oudhia


For the treatment of intestinal worms the use of Karosene oil (Mitti
Ka Tel) is very common in Chhattisgarh. Although Karosene oil is not
a herbal oil but after seeing its efficacy and popularity, I am
describing its use at first and after this, I will describe herbal
treatment. In general, the natives dip the cotton bud in Karosene oil
and put it inside the anus before sleep. Next morning it is removed.
According to the natives, this little treatment drains the worms out
during motion. It is prescribed for persons of all age group. This is
popular home remedy and since generations it is in use. During my
ethnobotanical surveys, I have collected information on many herbs
and herbal formulations that are in use in different parts of
Chhattisgarh. The natives and traditional healers have rich
traditional medicinal knowledge about common herbs used in treatment
of intestinal worms in Chhattisgarh. In my previous article on
Potherbs, I have described that many pot herbs are popular in the
state. These potherbs are preferred not only for taste but it also
possess valuable medicinal properties. The natives and traditional
healers of Chhattisgarh are well aware of medicinal properties of
Bathua against intestinal worms. They use different parts of Bathua
for this purpose. Bathua is among most popular potherbs in the state.
In Chhattisgarh, it grows like a weed in winter crops particularly in
wheat fields. As potherb, new leaves are used. Leaves collected after
flowering are not preferred. The natives living in rural areas get
the Bathua Bhaji free of cost whereas for natives living in urban
areas, it is available as vegetable in local markets. It is common
belief in Chhattisgarh, one season (i.e. winter) use of Bathua as pot
herbs, saves the body from various troubles including intestinal
worms. It is also considered useful in treatment and prevention of
Safed Dag (Leucoderma). In my previous articles I have mentioned that
the traditional healers blame the intestinal worms as root cause of
Lecuoderma. According to them, the use of Bathua, kills the worms and
in this way, cures the problem of Leucoderma. During surveys I noted
that many natives are not aware of miracle medicinal properties of
Bathua but they are still using it regularly. This is positive sign.
Many traditional healers of Chhattisgarh extract the juice of whole
herb and give it to the patients having the problem of intestinal
worms. According to them, for quick relief this treatment is more
effective as compared to its use as potherb. The natives prepare
special Chapati and Paratha, using the leaves of Bathua. The
scientific name of Bathua is Chenopodium album (family
Chenopodiaceae). As medicine, Bathua holds a reputed position in
reference literatures. According to Ayurveda, the whole herb is
generally used as medicine. It improve appetite. It is oleaginous,
anthelmintic, laxative (at over dose), diuretic, aphrodisiac (this is
new information for the natives of Chhattisgarh), and tonic. It is
useful in treatment of biliousness, abdominal pains, eye-diseases,
throat infections, piles, blood disorders and troubles of heart and
spleen. Botanically, it is 1-3 feet high, herbaceous annual, having
branched tap-root; Stem erect, branched, angled, of ten striped
green, red or purple, young shoots mealy; Leaf variable in shape, 1-5
inches long, lower ovate or oblong, toothed or entire, angled or
lobed, margin more or less sinuate, upper mostly narrow, entire,
petiole slender, often equal to or longer than the lamina, more or
less fleshy, covered with whitish mealy powder; Inflorescence :
flowers in cymose clusters, forming axillary spikes or long terminal
panicles, flowers very small an inconspicuous, sessile, without
bracts and bracteoles, regular, actinomorphic, bisexual, hypogynous;
Fruits having a membranous utricle enclosed in the perianth; Seeds
rounded, compressed with a hard testa, having black shining. Although
Bathua occur as weed and natives have rich traditional medicinal
knowledge but it is bitter fact that there is not a single pharmacy
engaged in preparation Bathua based drugs. There is a tremendous
scope in this field. As it is not in list of non-wood forest
produces, there is no threat to its natural population in Chhattisgarh

Dear colleagues,

I am a horticulturist. I am connected with medicinal plants for the past
8-10 years.

The fact is that NOTHING can stop harvesting of wild growing plants by local
people when they get a price for it. The local people living in forests and
villages of all developing countries need work and income. This helps then
in getting income. They do not like anyone to stop them from this activity.
In fact, they think it to be their right and local laws support it in many
countries.

The solution does not lie in stopping them from harvesting wild plants. The
solutionn lies in developing cultivation practices and commercial
cultivation of the wild plants whose demand in the commercial market has
increased. How can you stop a poor man who otherwise does not have much
work and income from making some money by gathering wild grwing plants which
also is not easy and involves hard work.

No efforts are being made for doestyication and cultivation of wild
medicinal plants in most countries. If there are projects going on at some
places, they just make collection of germ plasm and establishment of herbal
gardens.

Dr. Chiranjit Parmar
186/3 Jail Road
mandi HP 175 001
INDIA
Phone:(01905)222810 Fax: (01905)225419

Dear Colleagues,

The roots of Withania somnifera called ASHWAGANDHA are reported to be very good nervine tonic in AYURVEDA. It is used in many preparations and is in use in India since ages.

A few days back I read in a magazine published by a consumer rights group of India that ASHWAGANDHA preprations including the most popular preparation ASHWAGANDHARISHT have been found to contain steroids whose prolonged use was harmful.

Many people in India use ASHWAGANDHA preparations regularly as these are really helpful under conditions of mental stress and related conditions.

Will any one from this group throw some light on this subject?

Dr. Chiranjit Parmar
186/3 Jail Road
Mandi HP 175 001
INDIA
Phone:(01905)222810 Fax: (01905)225419

Greetings to the Group.

#1492 and #1493, what a fortuitous conjunction of posts. I say
fortuitous because they reveal some interconnecting threads in the
general web of corruption that surrounds the whole Multi- National
Business of Medicine, from root to branch.

We may see from post #1492 that the monographs are in WHO format and
presumably the information garnered is available to the WHO or the
International Pharmaceutical Companies. For a fee of course.

The group of single constituent entities mentioned are of great
interest to International Commerce. The isolated molecules fall
within 6 major chemical groupings which are to be found in nearly
every medicinal plant that one cares to examine.

The major difference between one medicinal plant and another at the
chemical level lies in the concentration of what is considered to be
the molecule that does the trick. The molecule is tinkered with and
then marketed by a corrupt industry and monitored by equally corrupt
Government agencies.

The results of such money grubbing activities are evident in most
Westernised countries that follow the Pasteur paradigm. I have
already posted to this group the reported 225,000 deaths in the USA
on an annual basis.

This under reported and massaged figure reveals that 5.67 percent of
the American population are maimed or killed by these lethal and
isolated molecules. The corrupt WHO estimate that fully 80% of the
global population use traditional medicine. The composition of the
WHO committees are in line with that of the British CSM. So I leave
you to draw your own conclusions, as to how they arrive at their
conclusions.

So if the world population is 5 billion then 20 percent use Western
Pharmaceutical Medicines. If we extrapolate 5.67 percent onto 1
billion people then the global slaughter is in excess of 56 million
people on a global basis who are killed annually. Never in our
recorded history has our specie been slaughtered on such a scale by
ones fellow man.

The Cui Bono factor, ensures that such matters are carefully hidden
from the flock, upon which the self appointed shepherds, are battened
like a bloated leech. Remember blood letting is no longer considered
conducive to the health of the patient.

For reasons both technical and practical, it is the usual practice to
commence to dissect the chemical structure of a plant with dehydrated
material. All dried plant material, because it is dead, attracts the
attention of those entities whose job it is in the cosmic scheme of
things, is to return the dead plant from whence it came.

One may quickly ascertain the level of those organisms within rough
parameters by subjecting a measured amount of dried material to the
imbibition process. Note the amount of water used for the imbibition
and cast the material onto a measured amount agar broth (not meat)
and hey presto.

It is not necessary to determine the specie of the organisms, for the
simple reason that a 70% Alcohol will kill microbes in very short
order.

The aqueous extracts that are used at village level correspond
roughly to the pharmaceutical aqueous extracts i.e. 1:20. If fresh
material is used then we may expect a small percentage increase in
the extractive obtained. However in terms of conservation this type
of extract is a disaster in that nearly 80% of the possible
extractive is thrown away with the Marc.

I have no doubt that the University of Western Cape find that their
School of Pharmacy yields profits far in excess of those garnered
from their only legitimate activity i.e 'Teaching' It is unfortunate
that nearly ever institute of higher learning took in the seeds of
corruption when they accepted the 'Pigeon Masters Dollars'

There are of course those cynics that consider such a stand point to
be naive, in that .... after all.... is that not the way of the world
from top to bottom ? It surely is, and Jack learns from his master
the etiquette of polite civilised behaviour.

Which leads me onto Olivier Behra's post. Dr Behra's postings to this
group must have taken a lot of personal courage, because he is in a
position where much pressure to silence him can be applied. I lift my
hat to you Dr Behra, because the fraternity of which you are part,
are well noted for turning upon their own, in a manner which is
similar to a piranha feeding frenzy. Dr Behra if you are ever placed
in that position, I offer my services as editor, and a platform from
which to voice your disquiet on my website.

Currently I have no means of knowing the situation in Madagascar but
human nature is very much of the sameness, irrespective of race or
creed.

From the traditional healer to the WHO one may clearly see the
universal culture of 'Nepotism' after all the Medical trade unions
and University Illuminati are a family, in the same way as a healer
and their extended family.

Here in New Zealand the nepotism is usually exercised by Indigenous
NGO,s that take tax payers money and apply it for the benefit of
those that rule the Cheque Book rather than the community of which
they serve. They use the same tactics displayed by the NZ academic
and scientific 'Quango,s. Now of course this is sanctioned by the
Government .... because the orders that percolate from Government
Nepotism is the mantra of 'Profit' and much midnight oil is burnt
upon the altar of Mammon.

I have pointed a few bones in the form of 'Lord Chief Justice, Lord
Bad Egg KC and the part he plays in this rotten system.

We all know what we are talking about ... Do we not, guys and gals ??

I have said it before and I will say it again. This group has the
power to change that system. However apart from the odd lone voice,
the major beneficiaries of the system of which we are all a part,
have remained silent. Here I detect Lord Bad Egg KC smirking, after
all he runs the system.

Our technology has reached the stage where such a disgrace can be
sqeezed out like a zit and the wound exposed to the healing rays of
the sun. Evil and corruption cannot stand the light of day. That is
why it is midnight oil that is burnt on the altar of Mammon.

Posts #1492 and #1493 stand at the antipodes of each other. I know
which mental space I prefer.

Paxman aka Phoenix. www.herbdatanz.com.

Ps The Online Science Journal 'Science in Africa' is a little late as
regards the January issue. I am given to understand this is due to
pressure of work. Accordingly I have published Herbs in Africa Part 5
to my website. I did so at the request of some of the readers of the
Journal. These articles have relevance to the points made by Dr.
Chiranjit Parmar re conservation.

r Parmar,

the mechanism of what you report is encapsulated in the series of
Lord Bad Egg KC on my website. That is typical of scientific
nonsense, whereby the collective wisdom of untold generations of
peoples is trashed by the power brokers.

I invite you to contact me privately and let us investigate the
substance of the scientific claims. I am sure that you will find that
Lord Bad Egg's finger is in that pie. If it is then we will publish
the matter on my web site. We have an international audience that
spans the globe.

Ivor Hughes
Auckland, New Zealand
www.herbdatanz.com

Dear Dr.Parmar,
For detailed information on this important aspect,please read
this review.
Scientific Basis for the Therapeutic Use of Withania somnifera
(Ashwagandha): A Review

Lakshmi-Chandra Mishra, MD (Ayur), PhD, Betsy B. Singh, PhD, Simon
Dagenais, BA
http://www.thorne.com/altmedrev/.fulltext/5/4/334.html

regards
P.OUDHIA

--- In Phytomedica@yahoogroups.com, "Dr. Chiranjit Parmar"
<parmarch@v...> wrote:

> Dear Colleagues,
>
> The roots of Withania somnifera called ASHWAGANDHA are reported to

be very good nervine tonic in AYURVEDA. It is used in many
preparations and is in use in India since ages.
>
> A few days back I read in a magazine published by a consumer rights

group of India that ASHWAGANDHA preprations including the most
popular preparation ASHWAGANDHARISHT have been found to contain
steroids whose prolonged use was harmful.
>
> Many people in India use ASHWAGANDHA preparations regularly as
these are really helpful under conditions of mental stress and
related conditions.

Greetings to the Group,
I invite you all to read this new article on Traditional
Medicinal Knowledge about common herbs used in treatment of
stomatitis in Chhattisgarh, India.
Research Note - P.Oudhia



Stomatitis is known as Chhale or Muh Aa Jana in local language. The
natives and traditional healers have rich traditional medicinal
knowledge about common herbs useful in treatment of stomatitis. They
use many common herbs both internally and externally in treatment. In
most of the cases, the patients get relief through home remedies. In
complicated cases, the natives consult the healers for specific
treatment. Although there are more than 2000 common home remedies in
form of herbal combinations in use but it is bitter fact that
systematic documentation of this traditional medicinal knowledge has
yet not been done. All these combinations are not available at one
place. In case of complications, the healers use specific herbs. This
valuable knowledge has also not been documented so far. As the old
natives are passing away, the knowledge is also ending with them. The
young generation believe less in these herbal combinations and use
costly mouth wash liquids in order to treat stomatitis. In modern
system of medicine, many antibiotics are prescribed for this little
trouble. The traditional healers of Chhattisgarh, try to find the
reason responsible for stomatitis at first and after this diagnose,
they try to cure the root disease. On the basis of colour of ulcers,
they diagnose the patients. According to them, they have gained this
knowledge from their forefathers.

For complete article,please visit at
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/89_stomatitis.html

regards
P.OUDHIA
http://www.celestine-india.com/pankajoudhia

PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERNS
N.Z.Nyazema
Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical School.
P.O. Box A 178, Avondale,
Harare, Zimbabwe
E-mail: Nnyazema@healthnet.zw

"We are all Alices in a wonderland of conflicting claims, bright promises, fancy packages, soaring words and almost impenetrable ignorance"
FJ Schlink, founder of the US's first independent product testing agency.

United Nations Guidelines on Consumer Protection

Following extensive discussions and negotiations among governments, the general Assembly of the United Nations adopted guidelines for consumer protection by consensus on 9 April 1985 (General Assembly Resolution 39/248). This was after the then Secretary General had carried out consultations since 1977 with governments and international organizations and had submitted draft guidelines for consumer protection to the Economic and Social Council in 1983. The guidelines for consumer protection have the following as some of the objectives:

a.)To assist in achieving or maintaining adequate consumer protection;
b.)To facilitate production and distribution patterns responsive to the needs and desires of consumers;
c.)To encourage high levels of ethical conduct for those engaged in the production and distribution of goods and services to consumers;
d.)To assist in curbing abusive business practices.

The guidelines were extended in 1995 into new areas such as sustainable consumption patterns and financial services. It was partly due to the extension of the 1985 guidelines and conferences organized by the regional office for Africa of the Consumers International, CI-ROAF, at Dakar, Senegal and kadoma that the Model Law for Consumers Protection in Africa was drafted. The Model Law establishes or strengthens a number of procedural and institutional structures and mechanisms for the realization of Consumer Rights (CI - ROAF 1996).

For example, in the area of pharmaceuticals, which should strictly speaking include phytomedicines or herbal medicines, the guidelines urge governments to develop or maintain adequate standards, provisions and appropriate regulatory system. The systems are to be set up for ensuring the quality and appropriate use of pharmaceuticals through integrated national drug policy which could address, inter alia, procurement, distribution, production, licensing arrangements, registration systems and the availability of reliable information on pharmaceuticals (UN 1986).
Zimbabwe now has an explicit national drug policy, and among its objectives is included the need to develop, monitor, regularly review and improve and advocate appropriate drug legislation and regulation with regard to traditional medicines (ZNDP, 1995). Today the consumer in Zimbabwe is, however, confronted with a complex array of new technologies and is increasingly enmeshed in an international grid of production and services. The grid includes health care delivery.

If consumers in Zimbabwe were asked to write down a list of their ten consumer problems of most personal concern, the lists would vary widely, of course, but it is safe to say that on every list, and at the top or very close to it, would be the need for appropriate health care within reach of the family budget.

Our national and personal response to the quality of health care, to runaway costs and to any abuse of this literally life-and-death need is the ultimate measure of our consumer dignity. Luckily no matter how big the World Back debt, or sadness, or pain due to HIV/IDS, or confusion, there is always somebody around who has the rock bottom answer:

"Well, it could be worse. As long as you've got your health."
This only emphasizes the fact that health is definitely a family fortune. If one holds onto it, anything and everything is possible. Without it, life is an even more difficult obstacle race. Health should be considered as a gift. Always be preserved, never to be wasted. Genuine traditional healers and orthodox medical practitioners who help us keep our health must win our greatest respect and gratitude. Health is not only a family fortune but also a passport to a better future, or at least the physical, mental and spiritual opportunity to reach for that better future.

In Europe, four main elements are transforming the backdrop against which consumer protection policy is being set. These four elements are:
- Rapid and revolutionary technological changes in transport, telecommunication and processing networks;
- Increasingly dynamic, global and innovative markets;
- Growing complexity in the nature of products and services;
- Developing awareness of consumers as stakeholders.

All these new developments have impacts that do coverage.

A good example, is the interface between food and trade issues, dramatically illustrated by the fallout international relations and trade from the BSE ("mad cow" disease) affair. In a world of genetically modified foods, bovine growth hormones and pesticides, defense of the individual consumer's right to safety, information and choice reverberates far beyond his/her dinner table or local general dealer's shop or tuck shop.

The World Health Assembly Resolution on the Revised Drug Strategy, which requested the WHO to report on the impact of World Trade Organization WTO rules on national drug policies, was also an attempt at analyzing the above mentioned connections.

Prescriptions for consumer protection date back to Biblical times. The Old Testament counsels, in Proverbs XI, that " a false balance is abomination to the Lord, but just Weight is His delight". (The Holy Bible).

Consumer protection has come a long way since the first statues appeared. In Austria in the 17th century, the punishment for selling sour milk was to make the vendor drink it himself.

Unfortunately in Zimbabwe both the Public Health Act Ch. 328 and the proposed Medical Services Bill do not contain any provisions for consumer protection. However in the Statutory Instrument 252, 1987, of the Health professions Act makes references to what could be construed as an attempt to protect consumers from abuse by orthodox medical practitioners. For example:

- Section 9 protects consumers from being examined at any location other than the doctor's rooms.
- Section 11 stipulates that no secret code to be used for prescriptions.
- Section 14 is no collaboration with unregistered persons.
- Section 20 is on a patient's right to second opinion
- Section 22 refers to disclosure of patient information.

Sadly, all this is non existent in the traditional medical practice, despite provision of the establishment of a Traditional Medical Practitioners Council under section 3 of the Traditional Medical Practitioners Act of 1981, Chapter 27:14, revised in 1996. What is even worse is that even though the date of commencement of the Act was 16th October, 1991, upto now, 1999, sub-sections (2) and (3) of Section 31 (Box 6.1) are not in operation. And yet these are the sections that could be used to protect consumers from charlatans in the traditional medicine practice.

Section 31 Practice of traditional medical practitioner
1.) subject to subsections (4) and (5), any person who, not being registered as a traditional medical practitioner -
a.) for gain practices or carries on business as a traditional medical practitioner, whether or not purporting to be registered; or
b.) pretends, or by any means whatsoever holds himself out to be a registered traditional medical practitioner; or

c.) uses the title "Registered Traditional Practitioner" or any name, title, description or symbol indicating or calculated to lead persons to infer that he is registered as a traditional practitioner in terms of this Act;
shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding two thousand dollars or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding two years or both such fine and such imprisonment.

2.) Subject to the provisions of subsections (4) and (5), any person who, not having the qualification of spirit medium recorded in the Register in relation to himself, uses the "Registered Spirit Medium" or any name, title, description or symbol indicating or calculated to lead persons to infer that he has such qualification registered in relation to himself in terms of this Act shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding two years or both such fine and such imprisonment.

3.) The provisions of -
a.) paragraph (a) of subsection (2) shall not apply to any person who is registered in terms of the Medical, Dental and Allied Professions Act (Chapter 27:08).
b.) Paragraphs (b) and (c) of subsection (2) and subsection (3) shall not apply to any person who is not ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe and does not purport to be registered in terms of this Act.
4.) Subsections (2) and (3) shall come into operation on such date as the President may fix by statutory instrument.
Source: Traditional Medical Practitioners Act (Chapter 27:14), Revised Edition, 1996, Zimbabwe Government Printer

Clearly, as can be seen from the statute, only when consumers are well informed can they make essential contribution to the quality of their own health care and that of others. The act makes it difficult for any form of consumer protection to be promoted in traditional medicine delivery system. Registration in accordance with the Act means nothing, if there are no regulations on conduct, like the Statutory Instrument 252 of 1987, for the orthodox medical practice.

Patient Rights Charter
One strategy to empower patients, in order to protect themselves, is the promotion of a Patients' Rights Charter - a statement of consumer rights to health care that encompasses both social and individual concerns. As social rights, they should cover such aspects as the quality and accessibility of health care. As individual rights, they aim to protect basic human rights to life and health. The Charter, in general, is an effort to achieve better care on the part of hospital staff and traditional healers, and to achieve satisfaction on the part of the patient. Where possible it should be legally and / or morally binding. The following is a summary of what should be it major provisions:

1.)The patient has the right to be treated with respect and consideration. That should be a human response in any situation, but when people are sick and probably scared, lack of respect and consideration are abuses that must never be tolerated.
2.)The patient has the right to be fully informed - about his diagnosis, treatment and prognosis - in a language that is understandable to a layman.
3.) If an operation is suggested, before signing any papers the patient has the right to be informed of the possible risks involved, of any alternative treatments that might be used, and of the name of the person in charge of the treatment.

4.)A patient has the right to refuse treatment - where refusal is permitted by law - and to be informed of the medical consequences of that refusal.
5.)A patient has the right to privacy during examination, treatment and talks with health care providers. Anyone not specifically connected with his case cannot be present without his permission.
6.)A patient has the right to expect confidential treatment by the health care provider.

7.)A patient has the right to claim damages for injury or illness and shall have access to the means to do so.
It said rights come after responsibility. The charter should therefore be clear on what the patient's responsibilities are or should be. These could be stated as the following basic principles:

1.)Whilst a patient has the right to be heard, the patient also has an obligation to listen to medical advice and any instructions concerning the treatment.
2.)The patient and family shall provide accurate and complete information to assist the health care provider efficiently.
3.)To avoid any inconveniences the family and patient should follow the referral chain.
4.)The patient and family shall keep appointments and shall inform the health care provider if there are problems in keeping the appointment.

Admittedly these could be interpreted as basic principles that apply to orthodox medicine. But as we go into the new millennium. There is going to be a thin line that divides the so called scientific medicine and traditional medicine. In other words these principles will increasingly be found to be applicable to traditional medical practice.

The need of patients as consumers, however, extend beyond provision of health care. Advances in medical science, genetics, biotechnology and other areas have sparked ethical debates on the number of fronts, including the limits to what is permissible in scientific research and the intellectual and commercial ownership of its fruits, as discussed elsewhere in this book. Controversial bioethical issues are an aspect of patients' rights that consumers will be increasingly called upon to address.

The right to choose.
In the developed countries, consumers are making a deliberate choice in opting for herbal remedies. Their popularity is widespread in North America, Western Europe, Japan and Australia. In the developing countries on the other hand, a vast majority of the people use traditional medicines, as has been stated earlier, because modern health care services are not accessible, available or affordable.
International marked prices of top-selling herbs have been published. Some of the more popular herbs such as Ethinacea and Goldenseal sell for quite a high wholesale price of about US$30 - US$50 for their roots. The most expensive herb in the world is the wild Chinese Ginseng. It sells for US$1000 a gram and is traded in the marked place. There is very little published data on retail prices of herbal remedies and how much consumers pay out of pocket for them particularly in developing countries.

WHOs Role
Traditional systems of health care and herbal remedies were freely available in developing countries for several centuries. WHO came into existence in 1948, but only in 1976 did it decide that traditional healers and midwives, previously seen as an obstacle to progress, must play their part in delivering health care. The Traditional Medicines Programme under a director was then set up in 1978.
As we go onto the new millennium there are, however, still consumer concerns that need to be addressed. These include such questions like, what is WHO's current policy on traditional medicine? Does the WHO consider traditional medicine as merely a substitute for modern medicine when the latter is either not accessible, available or affordable to the poor in the Third World? Or is traditional medicine a valid health technology in itself? These questions need to be addressed if concerted effort on consumer protection has to be made, at regional level or even world wide.

In mid seventies, it was estimated by the WHO that about 80% of the world's people had access to modern health care. As recently as 1993, it was reported by the Director of the WHO Traditional Medicine Programme that 80% of health budgets in developing countries are directed to services that reach approximately 20% of the population. This figure refers to modern health services.

Country Million US$@retail

European Union 6,000

Rest of Europe 500

Asia 2,300

Japan 2,100

North America 1,500

Total 12,400

Southern Africa Development Committee Region

There is now ample documented evidence that consumers in Zimbabwe are purchasing and increasing using herbal remedies and traditional medicines in increasing amounts. There is also evidence that some of the herbal remedies on the market, coming from all over the world are of questionable safety, efficacy and quality (Figs 6.1 and 6.2). This raises the issue of consumer safety which can only be clearly understood if herbal remedies are classified into the following three categories:

1.Phytomedicines or phytopharmaceuticals sold as over the counter (OTC) products in modern dosage forms such as capsules, tablets and liquids for oral use.

2.Dietary supplements containing herbal products, also called nuticeuticals, available in modern dosage forms.

These two types of herbal remedies have now found their way onto the Zimbabwean market.

3.Herbal remedies consisting of either crude, semi-processed or processed medicinal plants and herbs. These remedies are available at two levels:

* Household level - Traditional beliefs, norms and practices based on centuries old experiences of trials and errors, successes and failures at the household level. These are passed through oral tradition and may be called, "people's health culture", home remedies or folk remedies. These have a vital place in primary health care in developing countries.

* Traditional healer level - A codified system of traditional medicine at the level of the traditional healer.

Consumers concern about herbal remedies are the same the world over. These include: safety, efficacy, quality, costs, unethical promotion and irrational use.

Consumers in the region believe that sharing of information on consumer protection measure among SADC countries would be advantageous.

It was with this in mind that the Southern and East African Medicines Regulatory Affairs Conference (SEAMRAC) was set up with a view of a harmonized approach to medicines regulations and controls in Eastern and Southern Africa.

Developed countries despite having effective and efficient, and to some extent harmonized regulatory control over modern pharmaceutical that could serve as useful models to enact appropriate legislation to protect consumers, have reported some problems with herbal remedies.
Some developing countries, particularly in the East have had several centuries of experience with the use of traditional medicine in health care. Developed countries may find this experience useful;

No country in the SADC region to date has an effective regulatory mechanism to ensure the safety, efficacy and quality of herbal remedies;
There is a problem in the marketing strategy for example of herbal medicine, if marketed as food, in not regulated; but if the same product is marketed as a traditional medicine, it would have to be regulated.
In the SADC region there are no systems, self-regulatory or otherwise, for the training, certification and registration of traditional healers or herbalists. Consumers have no guaranteed that the traditional healers or herbalists whom they visit to obtain health care have the necessary qualifications whatever these may be according to the law.

These include a long list of medicinal plants that have been found to be toxic to the liver. For example, Germander which has been used with apparent safety for centuries was, in the early 1990s first identified as a hepatotoxic drug. In may 1992, all preparations containing Germander were therefore withdrawn from the market and banned in France. This lead was not followed in Canada, where the first two cases of hepatitis were reported recently.

Four cases of acute hepatitis attributed to single plants of mixtures were reported in British patients taking Valeria. This is one of the top selling herbs in the USA that is thought to be responsible for acute hepatitis.

In Belgium 70 cases of renal impairment attributable to preparations based on Chinese plants were recently reported.

A neonatal death where a mother had been drinking herbal tea was reported in 1988

Finally, one research field which is important for consumer protection that has been neglected and poorly studied is the potential interaction between herbal remedies and modern pharmaceuticals. This is another consumer concern since many people at times take herbal remedies and modern drugs together and do not reveal this to their physicians or pharmacists at consultation.

REFERENCES

CI - ROAF, 1996. Protecting the African Consumer: The Model Law for Africa. Consumers International, Harare, Zimbabwe, 1996
UN, 1986. Guidelines for Consumer Protection. UN ST/ESA/170
The Zimbabwean National Drug Policy. Department of Pharmacy Services, Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, Republic of Zimbabwe, 1995.
Reply


Dear Friends,

I am seeking information on the market potential of Moringa oleifera.

I am a Ugandan scientist. What is interesting is that all over a sudden,
there is a craze for growing Moringa oleifera for market purposes in Uganda.
What is interesting is that there are claims that instances of 'theft of the
seedlings of the moringa from fields for planting in remote areas.

'Associations' of Moringa Development have been formed. Unfortunately ther
is no clear information as to where in the world the market for the leaves
are, other that the domestic market.

I would be grateful for any information related to the potential world
market for moringa leaf powders and or products.

Sophia Apio kerwegi
skapio@hotmail.com.


• Greetings to the Group,
I invite you all to read my article on Ankol (Alangium
lamarckii) as medicinal herb in Chhattisgarh India.
Research Note - P.Oudhia


Although "Allelopathy" is an unknown term for the natives and
traditional healers of Chhattisgarh, but there are many evidences
that are enough to prove that this new branch of science have deep
roots in Chhattisgarh, India. Since generations, they are using the
extracts and leachates of different herbs in order to stimulate and
promote the growth of specific herb. In my previous articles, I have
mentioned many examples. The example of Ankol is one of them.
According to the healers, all parts of Ankol have enough potential to
pose the positive effects on growth of many herbs. From seed
treatment to preventive sprays for possible attack of insects,
different parts are used. For seed treatment, it is specially
suitable for fruit crops. It is general practice in Chhattisgarh to
dip the mango stone (guthli or gohi) in herbal oil prepared from
Ankol seeds. According to natives , it stimulates the initial
germination process and also seedling vigour.

It is an age old practice. I have seen miracle effects of this herbal
oil on mango. The natives of almost all parts of the state are aware
of this use and it is interesting to observe that there are much
variations in methods of use, specially duration of soaking in herbal
oil. The natives of Sarguja region, use this oil most frequently for
Kathal tree (Jackfruit). Its use for the growth of Kela (Banana),
Papita (Papaya) and Jam (Guava) is also common in different parts.
Many healers have secret formulas. The natives having Mango tree or
orchard, frequently visit to these healers and invite them to perform
special Jhad-Phook for the safety and good yield. As agricultural
researcher, it is hard to believe that simple Jhad-Phook by healers
can help in getting good yields. But it is true. The healers apply
herbal combinations on different herbs of economical importance with
specific objectives. Since childhood I am observing the activities of
these healers carefully. In early days when there was serious attack
of any pest in rice crops, the natives request the healers to do
something in order to save the crop. On request of natives, the
healers perform special worship ceremony and after this ceremony,
spray special solution on crop plants. In early days when the use of
pesticides were not common this practice was very common. Now in
modern days, very few natives believe in this special solution and in
case of attack, apply synthetic pyrethroids without any delay. During
my ethnobotanical surveys in different parts of Chhattisgarh, I have
collected the samples of many such special solutions and analysed it.

For complete article,please visit at
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/90_ankol.html
regards,
P.OUDHIA
http://www.celestine-india.com/pankajoudhia

Dear All

I found something else in my files on Moringa oleifera:

A Common Tree With Rare Power

* Moringa's potential as diet aid, water purifier is seen as boon to hunger
fight. It's cheap, full of nutrients and a known quantity in much of the
developing world.

By MARK FRITZ, Times Staff Writer

Scientifically speaking, Moringa sounds like magic. It can rebuild weak
bones, enrich anemic blood and enable a malnourished mother to nurse her
starving baby. Ounce for ounce, it has the calcium of four glasses of milk,
the Vitamin C of seven oranges and the potassium of three bananas.
Sounds like your Power Bar, you say? Well, consider this: A dash of Moringa
can make dirty water drinkable. Doctors use it to treat diabetes in West
Africa and high blood pressure in India. Not only can it staunch a skin
infection, Moringa makes an efficient fuel, fertilizer and livestock feed.
Memo to Popeye: Moringa has triple the iron of spinach and more impressive
attributes than olive oil. And it's not only good for you, it's delicious.
You can cook Moringa in Moringa oil and top it with Moringa sauce and still
taste a spectrum of flavors.
And it's cheap enough to grow on trees. Which is what Moringa oleifera is: A
tree, with a gnarly trunk and tousled head of foliage that make it look like
a cypress that just rolled out of bed. It is a common tree that thrives in
both the desert and the living room and produces leaves, pods, seeds and
flowers that each do uncommon things.
"It's a remarkable tree," said Lowell Fuglie, West Africa director for Church
World Service, the relief arm of the National Council of Churches. "Among
academics, the properties have been known for years. We decided to put it to
the test."
The organization recently convinced the nation of Senegal to promote Moringa
as part of the national diet. This came after a two-year pilot project in the
hardscrabble villages in the Senegalese southwest, where Moringa grows wild.

Plant's Following Begins to Build
Fuglie found ground Moringa leaves to be more readily embraced by rural
villagers than other dietary aids, plus four times as effective. "I couldn't
believe what was happening," he said.
Malnutrition causes high infant mortality and a staggering array of health
problems among an estimated 1 billion people. Though experts doubt a single
food source can be a silver bullet in the war on hunger, Moringa has built an
increasingly larger following in the last two years. More people are noticing
that the plant is a proven water purifier with remarkable nutritional and
medicinal properties that just happens to thrive in places where bad water,
poor diets and the diseases they promote are leading killers.
Scientists who study this gifted bit of flora also consider it an outstanding
example of what has been lost in many other plants and animals: a genetic
versatility bred away by huge agribusinesses.
Many argue that a lack of genetic variation in the food we eat makes specific
strains more susceptible to getting wiped out by a single pest, pathogen or
climatological change. In 1970, 15% of the U.S. corn crop was destroyed when
blight swept the grain belt. In the mid-19th century, the Irish potato crop
crashed, causing famine that killed a million people. The reason? Dominant
plant varieties were too genetically alike and therefore vulnerable to the
same enemy.
"There are probably a lot of plants [other than Moringa] that have the same
benefits," said Barbara Schaal, an expert on evolutionary plant genetics at
Washington University in St. Louis. "That's why it's so important to preserve
natural biodiversity. Corn and soybean, all of these things have incredible
potential. But we've lost a lot of their wild relatives."
At the same time, herb-happy consumers are gobbling up candy-coated nutrient
bars crammed with everything from pine bark to bioflavonoids. Yet Moringa is
a reminder of what nature can do.
Here are some examples of how the plant is picking up a devoted following:
* The National Science Foundation, National Geographic Society and the Andrew
Mellon Foundation are financing a scientist's hair-raising attempts to
collect the world's 13 Moringa species.
* Both Moringa and the common carrot are diamonds in the roughage department,
but Moringa has quadruple the beta carotene, which is good for the eyes and
effective against cancer. The Bethesda, Md.-based International Eye
Foundation is using Moringa in Malawi because it's loaded with Vitamin A, the
lack of which causes 70% of childhood blindness.
* Wichita, Kan.-based Trees for Life, which has been planting food-bearing
trees in impoverished places since 1984, is running Moringa cultivation
programs in India after convincing a town of 40,000 to make the tree a
structured part of the local diet.
* Britain's University of Leicester is studying the coagulating properties of
the seeds in those tasty Moringa pods, which researchers believe work better
than the common water purifier aluminum sulfate, which can be toxic. The
school weaned a Malawi village off imported alum by building a simpler
Moringa-based system.
* Hospitalized for prostate surgery in December, former United Nations
ambassador and ex-Atlanta mayor Andrew Young told people not to send flowers,
but buy Moringa seedlings for the malnourished. Young is the new president of
the National Council of Churches.
The interest in Moringa is growing in a field filled with conflicting
theories about fighting hunger. Several relief organizations asked to comment
on the tree had never heard of it. Some were leery of anything that sounded
like an easy fix to a complex problem.
"You'd think Monsanto or somebody would have patented it by now," joked Ian
Bray, spokesman for the relief group Oxfam of Great Britain, when asked about
Moringa. "We've been looking for silver bullets for so long I think they
don't exist."
Steve Hansch, research coordinator for the Congressional Hunger Center in
Washington, said he was annoyed that a November article in Monday
Developments, a newsletter of the U.S. humanitarian community, touted the
plant and Senegal effort without explaining hunger's complexities.
"A tree is not going to be a single intervention," he said. "There are
thousands of ways to treat malnutrition. If we can convince people in
developing countries to eat any leafy green vegetable, if we can convince
women to take iron supplements, we've accomplished a lot. It's not like we
lack food for people to consume."
The fact that Moringa is a known quantity in much of the developing world is
the key to its potential, Fuglie insisted. Moringa leaves already are used in
Senegal to make a sauce. Some Nile River villages discovered its
effectiveness as a water purifier. Nigerians use crushed leaves to clean
cooking utensils and the wood yields a common blue dye in Jamaica. The seed
oil is used for cooking and, because it won't spoil, as a preservative and
even machinery lubricant. The plant crops up elsewhere as an animal feed,
plant fertilizer, fence post, stationery and oil paint.
American stores specializing in Indian cuisine sell pickled Moringa pods as
"drumsticks." In some places, Moringa lives a sort of Clark Kent existence as
a mere ornamental.
Jim Johnson, head of a Mississippi seed company, Seedman.com,, began selling
Moringa seeds several years ago after a Brazilian grower sent him samples.
"It conforms its size and shape to whatever container it's in. We've sold
thousands," he said, expressing surprise at Moringa's other attributes.
Ubiquitous though it is, Moringa advocates say the tree is only an occasional
food source in the places where it grows, and that much of its nutritional
value is boiled away.
In a 65-page book on the National Council of Church's pilot project in
Senegal, Fuglie described the willingness of a hospital administrator to
substitute Moringa for the classical, and costly, methods of using whole milk
powder, vegetable oil and sugar to treat malnutrition. The official, a
diabetic, had been drinking Moringa tea to control his glucose for years, but
had been unaware of its nutritional properties.
A star of the project was Awa Diedhou, an infant born weighing 3 pounds, 5
ounces. Her mother couldn't produce sufficient milk and the child was given
little chance to survive. On a Moringa-supplemented diet, the child quickly
grew "quite fat," Fuglie said, and the mother began producing milk.
Beri beri, rickets and scurvy are among the diseases caused by the lack of
nutrients that are abundant in Moringa. Three spoonfuls of Moringa leaf
powder contain 272% of a typical toddler's daily Vitamin A requirement, along
with 42% of the protein, 125% of the calcium,, 71% of the iron and 22% of the
Vitamin C. It contains a full complement of minerals and all the amino acids
of meat.
Some people find its water-purifying powers most compelling. Lack of
drinkable water is, arguably, the world's biggest health threat. Pressed
Moringa seeds can turn a tumbler of bacteria-laced river muck into clean
water more economically than imported chemicals, researchers say.
"With all these advantages, what are we waiting for?" University of Leicester
scientist Ben Bazeley wrote last year in The Rotarian magazine. Rotary Clubs
are sponsoring Moringa projects in Brazil and Zimbabwe.
Its medicinal qualities also are tantalizing. The seeds and roots contain an
antibiotic that Guatemala's University of San Carlos found to be as effective
against skin infections as neomycin. In recent years, studies published in
the journal Phytotherapy Research and HortScience have found different
Moringa parts to be effective in lowering blood sugar, reducing swelling,
healing gastric ulcers, lowering blood pressure and even calming the nervous
system.
Moringa is also very rugged for something that sprouts flowers. A seed or cut
branch can grow into a 15-foot tree in a year. A giant tap root lets the
plant soldier through Saharan-scale droughts and withstand overly acidic,
alkaline or salty soil.
Though Moringa oleifera is most common, there are a dozen other known species
within the genus, which means they share the same underlying biochemical
structure. Moringa plays a blue fungus in Madagascar, green cactuses in
Mexico and a bulbous bottle tree in Oman.
It has hundreds of names: the Benzolive tree of Haiti, the Malnuggay of the
Philippines, even the horseradish tree of Florida because the roots taste
like the condiment. But the root bark is toxic and the root meat contains a
nerve paralyzer. Moringa bark is sometimes used to induce abortions in India,
sometimes killing women in the process.
Mark Olson, a Washington University doctoral candidate in evolutionary
botany, has spent the last five years scouring some of the world's deadliest
shrubbery in a hunt for every species.

Trip to Unstable Somalia Pays Off
He's found 12, and he suspects the 13th may be extinct. Each are found in
dry, remote tropical areas that often feature a war of some kind.
"Practically nothing is known about them, and I quickly found out why," said
Olson.
Particularly hairy was a 1998 hunt for a species that hadn't been recorded in
30 years. Olson and a band of armed bodyguards had to forage through the
plant's likeliest habitat: perennially unstable Somalia.
The risk was worth it. Out in the scrub of the arid landscape, Olson found
his missing Moringa. It was laden with pods that looked like 3-foot-long
string beans. "The local people used them for everything," said Olson. "It's
one of the most useful trees in the world."
Time will tell if Moringa makes its way to American supermarkets, where
everything from ginkgo biloba to green algae can be found crammed into
artificially flavored chocolate bars.
Olson, whose field work was recently featured in National Geographic
magazine, has become a human clearinghouse of all things Moringa. He said
he's seen a big jump in entrepreneurial inquiries in the last year.
"I get e-mails from businessmen in China who are growing huge crops of this
to make money," he said. "There's a huge amount of interest."

Copyright 2000 Los Angeles Times
Click for permission to reprint. (PRC# 1.528.000028893)

-Edward C. Green


Dear Sophia,

We had some contacts of people from the business interested in oil of
Moringa seeds. This oil should have an increasing interest on the market
especialy for cold pressed oil.

Leaves of Moringa are very interesting for food especialy in remote area
where there are potential drought. Moringa oleifera not needing much water
and attention it is a very interesting tree to promote however. May be it
will be needed to promote the leave use for food (proteine rich).

Moringa seed crushed are powerfull natural insect repelant. Technics have
been developed in Kenya to use maceration for agriculture purposes. Our
advice would be to look for the standardization of these natural insecticide
for the european growing organic agriculture market.

Regards

Olivier Behra


Dear All,

We have in Madagascar a very demonstrative exemple of a species saved by its
use. And for which we do not anderstand why and how it disepeared.

Moringa hildebrandi is abundantly cultivated in villages, but since 1880
when it has been discovered in a village, it has never been found in the
wild. Ethnobotanical data suggesting that the tree originally grew in the
extreem south west of Madagascar.

I was interested to read Edward C. Green info on Moringa and had a special
interest in the following part
* The National Science Foundation, National Geographic Society
and the Andrew
Mellon Foundation are financing a scientist's hair-raising
attempts to
collect the world's 13 Moringa species.
We would very much wellcome someone having more info on this project in case
some effort could be put in looking for Moringa hildebrandtii in the wild.


Moringa oleifera Lam.
The Species of Moringa: Geography
http://www.mobot.org/gradstudents/olson/moringahome.html
-------------------------------
This species is one of the world's most useful plants. Though apparently native only to restricted areas in the southern foothills of the Himalayas, M. oleifera is cultivated in all the countries of the tropics. M. oleifera is cultivated for its leaves, fruits, and roots for a variety of food and medicinal purposes. The young fruits (sometimes called "drumsticks" ) can be cooked in a number of different ways. An excellent oil is derived from the seeds, which is used for cooking and lubrication of delicate mechanisms. The leaves are extensively used as a vegetable in many parts of the world, and the root can be made into a condiment similar to horseradish (true horseradish, Armoracia rusticana, is a member of the Mustard Family, Brassicaceae). M. oleifera is also of interest because of its production of compounds with antibiotic activity such as the glucosinolate 4 alpha-L-rhamnosyloxy benzyl isothiocyanate. Other research has focused on the use of M. oleifera seeds and fruits in water purification.

It is commonly and incorrectly known under the names M. aptera and M. pterygosperma.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Noel Vietmeyer, of the US National Academy of Sciences, Washington said in late 1992:

"Although few people have ever heard of it today, Moringa could soon become one of the world's most valuable plants, at least in humanitarian terms. Perhaps the fastest-growing of all trees, it commonly reaches three metres in height just 10 months after the seed is planted. Furthermore, it has more than a dozen important uses, yielding, among other things, several types of food as well as oil, wood, paper, shade, beautification and liquid fuel
-------------------------------------------
Other Links:

http://peacecorps.mtu.edu/moringa.htm

http://www.portalmarket.com/moringatree.html

http://www.mobot.org/gradstudents/olson/oleifera.html

http://www.le.ac.uk/engineering/staff/Sutherland/moringa/moringa.htm

http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/newslett/ncnl9192.htm

http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/acc_num/199700027.html

http://www.churchworldservice.org/moringa/

http://dir.yahoo.com/Science/Biology/Botany/Plants/Trees/Moringa_oleifera/

http://www.abaral-farms.com/projects.html

http://www.buysomali.com/somali_natural_products_moringa.htm

http://www.mobot.org/gradstudents/olson/moringahome.html


Moringa oleifera Lam.
Moringaceae
Horseradish-tree, Ben-oil tree, Drumstick-tree
Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.

Uses

Almost every part of plant is of value for food. Seed is said to be eaten like a peanut in Malaya. Thickened root used as substitute for horseradish. Foliage eaten as greens, in salads, in vegetable curries, as pickles and for seasoning. Leaves pounded up and used for scrubbing utensils and for cleaning walls. Seeds yield 38-40% of a non-drying oil, known as Ben Oil, used in arts and for lubricating watches and other delicate machinery. Oil is clear, sweet and odorless, never becoming rancid; consequently it is edible and useful in the manufacture of perfumes and hairdressings. Wood yields blue dye. Leaves and young branches are relished by livestock. Commonly planted in Africa as a living fence (Hausa) tree. Trees planted on graves are believed to keep away hyenas and its branches are used as charms against witchcraft. Bark can serve for tanning; it also yields a coarse fiber.

Folk Medicine

According to Hartwell (1967-1971), the flowers, leaves, and roots are used in folk remedies for tumors, the seed for abdominal tumors. The root decoction is used in Nicaragua for dropsy. Root juice is applied externally as rubefacient or counter-irritant. Leaves applied as poultice to sores, rubbed on the temples for headaches, and said to have purgative properties. Bark, leaves and roots are acrid and pungent, and are taken to promote digestion. Oil is somewhat dangerous if taken internally, but is applied externally for skin diseases. Bark regarded as antiscorbic, and exudes a reddish gum with properties of tragacanth; sometimes used for diarrhea. Roots are bitter, act as a tonic to the body and lungs, and are emmenagogue, expectorant, mild diuretic and stimulant in paralytic afflictions, epilepsy and hysteria.

Chemistry

Per 100 g, the pod is reported to contain 86.9 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 8.5 g total carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 30 mg Ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe, 184 IU vit. A, 0.2 mg niacin, and 120 mg ascorbic acid, 310 ?g Cu, 1.8 ?g I. Leaves contain 7.5 g H2O, 6.7 g protein, 1.7 g fat, 14.3 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 440 mg Ca, 70 mg P, 7 mg Fe, 110 ?g Cu, 5.1 ?g I, 11,300 IU vit. A, 120 ?g vit. B, 0.8 mg nicotinic acid, 220 mg ascorbic acid, and 7.4 mg tocopherol per 100 g. Estrogenic substances, including the anti-tumor compound, ?-sitosterol, and a pectinesterase are also reported. Leaf amino acids include 6.0 g arginine/16 g N, 2.1 histidine, 4.3 lysine, 1.9 tryptophane, 6.4 phenylalanine, 2.0 methionine, 4.9 threonine, 9.3 lucine, 6.3 isoleucine, and 7.1 valine. Pod amino acids enclue 3.6 g arginine/16 g N, 1.1 g histidine, 1.5 g lysine, 0.8 g tryptophane, 4.3 g phenylalanine, 1.4 g methionine, 3.9 g threonine, 6.5 g leucine, 4.4 g isoleucine, and 5.4 valine. Seed kernel (70-74% of seed) contains 4.08 H2O, 38.4 g crude protein, 34.7% fatty oil, 16.4 g N free extract, 3.5 g fiber, and 3.2 g ash. The seed oil contains 9.3% palmitic, 7.4% stearic, 8.6% behenic, and 65.7% oleic acids among the fatty acids. Myristic and lignoceric acids have also been reported. The cake left after oil extraction contains 58.9% crude protein, 0.4% Cao, 1.1% P2O5 and 0.8% K2O. Pterygospermin, a bactericidal and fungicidal compound, isolated from Moringa has an LD50 subcutaneously injected in mice and rats of 350 to 400 mg/kg body weight. Root-bark yields two alkaloids: moringine and moringinine. Moringinine acts as cardiac stimulant, produces rise of blood-pressure, acts on sympathetic nerve-endings as well as smooth muscles all over the body, and depresses the sympathetic motor fibers of vessels in large doses only.

Description

Short, slender, deciduous, perennial tree, to about 10 m tall; rather slender with drooping branches; branches and stems brittle, with corky bark; leaves feathery, pale green, compound, tripinnate, 30-60 cm long, with many small leaflets, 1.3-2 cm long, 0.6-0.3 cm wide, lateral ones somewhat elliptic, terminal one obovate and slightly larger than the lateral ones; flowers fragrant, white or creamy-white, 2.5 cm in diameter, borne in sprays, with 5 at the top of the flower; stamens yellow; pods pendulous, brown, triangular, splitting lengthwise into 3 parts when dry, 30-120 cm long, 1.8 cm wide, containing about 20 seeds embedded in the pith, pod tapering at both ends, 9-ribbed; seeds dark brown, with 3 papery wings. Main root thick. Fruit production in March and April in Sri Lanka.

Germplasm

Reported from the African and Hindustani Centers of Diversity, Moringa or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate bacteria, drought, fungus, laterite, mycobacteria, and sand (Duke, 1978). Several cvs are grown: 'Bombay' is considered one of the best, with curly fruits. Others have the fruits 3-angled or about round in cross-section. In India, 'Jaffna' is noted for having fruits 60-90 cm, 'Chavakacheri murunga' 90-120 cm long. (2n == 28)

Distribution

Native to India, Arabia, and possibly Africa and the East Indies; widely cultivated and naturalized in tropical Africa, tropical America, Sri Lanka, India, Mexico, Malabar, Malaysia and the Philippine Islands.

Ecology

Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, Moringa is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 40.3 dm (mean of 53 cases == 14.1) annual temperature of 18.7 to 28.5�C (mean of 48 cases == 25.4) and pH of 4.5 to 8. (mean of 12 cases == 6.5). Thrives in subtropical and tropical climates, flowering and fruiting freely and continuously. Grows best on a dry sandy soil. Drought resistant.

Cultivation

In India, the plant is propagated by planting limb cuttings 1-2 m long, from June to August, preferably. The plant starts bearing pods 6-8 months after planting but regular bearing commenced after the second year. The tree bears for several years.

Harvesting

Fruit or other parts of plant usually harvested as desired according to some authors, but in India, fruiting may peak between March and April and again in September and October. Seed gathered in March and April and oil expressed.

Yields and Economics

While I have not located specific yield figures for Moringa, I feel, from personal observations, that its biomass and pod production should approach that of Prosopis growing in the same habitat. Hence, I would suggest a target yield of about 10 MT pods per hectare. Horseradish-tree is grown locally in India, Sri Lanka and elsewhere, and is consumed as a local product, either ripe or unripe. No commercial data are available.

Energy

According to Verma et al. (1976), "saijan" is a fast growing tree being planted in India on a large scale as a potential source of wood for the paper industry. It seems doubtful that the wood and seed oil could both be viewed as fountains of energy. According to Burkill (1966), "The seeds yield a clear inodorous oil to the extent of 22 to 38.5 percent. It burns with a clear light and without smoke. It is an excellent salad oil, and gives a good soap... It can be used for oiling machinery, and indeed has a reputation for this purpose as watch oil, but is now superseded by sperm oil." Sharing rather similar habitat requirements with the jojoba under certain circumstances, it might be investigated as a substitute for sperm whale oil like jojoba. Growing readily from cuttings, the ben oil could be readily produced where jojoba grows. Coming into bearing within two years, it could easily be compared to jojoba in head-on trials. I recommend such.

Biotic Factors

Fruitflies (Gitona spp.) have infested the fruits which then dried out at the tip and rotted. Leaves of young plants and freshly planted stumps are attacked by several species of weevils (Myllocerus discolor var. variegatus, M. 11-pustulatus, M. tenuiclavis, M. viridanus and Ptochus ovulum). Also parasitized by the flowering plant, Dendrophthoe flacata. Fungi which attack the horseradish-tree include: Cercospora moringicola (Leaf-spot), Sphaceloma morindae (Spot anthracnose), Puccinia moringae (rust), Oidium sp., Polyporus gilvus.

References

* Burkill, J.H. 1966. A dictionary of economic products of the Malay peninsula. Art Printing Works, Kuala Lumpur. 2 vols.

* Duke, J.A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 1-61. In: ASA Special Symposium 32, Crop tolerance to suboptimal land conditions. Am. Soc. Agron. Madison, WI.

* Hartwell, J.L. 1967-1971. Plants used against cancer. A survey. Lloydia 30-34.

* Verma, S.C., Banerji, R., Misra, G., Nigam, S.K. 1976. Nutritional value of moringa. Current Sci. 45(21):769-770.

Complete list of references for Duke, Handbook of Energy Crops
Reply


BIO-IPR resource pointer
________________________________________________________

Amazonlink.org, a Brazilian NGO based in the state of Acre, has developed a
special section of its website focusing on local problems of
biopiracy: http://www.amazonlink.org/biopiracy/index.htm. The pages are
available in Portuguese and English. Contact information below.


BIOPIRACY IN THE AMAZON - INTRODUCTION

Biopiracy means not only the smuggling of diverse forms of flora and fauna,
but mainly the appropriation and monopolization of traditional population's
knowledge and biological resources. Biopiracy causes the loss of control of
traditional populations over their resources. In the Amazon region this is
not a new phenomenon!

This joint knowledge must not be seen as a commodity that can be sold or
bought.

In the last years, through the advance of biotechnology, the facilitating of
registering international trademarks and patents as well as international
agreements on intellectual property, such as TRIPs, the possibilities of
such exploitation have multiplied.

However, there are also efforts to revert this situation:

* In 1992, during Eco-92 in Rio de Janeiro, the Convention on Biological
Diversity was signed. The Convention aims, among others, at the regulation
of access to biological resources and at sharing in a fair and equitable way
the results of research and development and the benefits arising from the
commercial utilization of genetic resources with the communities.

* In 1995, Senator Marina Silva (from 2003 on, Minister of Environment of
Brazil) presented a law project to create legal mechanisms for practical
arrangements according to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

* In December 2001, shamans of various indigenous peoples from Brazil
formulated the Letter from S�o Luis do Maranh�o, an important document for
the World Intellectual Property Organization, questioning all forms of
patents that derive from traditional knowledge.

* In may of 2002, ten years after Eco-92, the workshop "Growing Diversity"
took place in Rio Branco, Acre. The event was organized by the international
NGO GRAIN in partnership with the NGO GTA-Acre. 100 representatives of
farmers, fishermen, indigenous people, extrativists, craftsmen and NGOs of
32 countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, participated in this event.
They formulated the "Commitment of Rio Branco", alerting the world on the
serious threat of biopiracy and requiring, among others, that life patents
and any form of intellectual property on biodiversity and traditional
knowledge should be banned.

However, these efforts seem shy, compared to the greed of the speculators
and multinational companies that continue to take over and monopolize the
wealth of the Amazon.

THESE PAGES

Amazonlink.org has been establishing contacts between rural producers in the
Amazon and buyers of sustainable products abroad. In the course of these
activities we encountered obstacles due to trademarks and patents on certain
products. These products are considered great potentials for the sustainable
development of the Amazon region. The finding of these facts led us to the
publication of these pages.

The objectives of these pages are:

* To alert the public about some new cases of patents and trademarks, such
as Cupua�u, Andiroba and Copa�ba. We consider these cases worrisome because
of their negative impacts on the traditional communities commercial
activities, and the sustainable development of the Amazon region. The case
is the patent of Ayahuasca is emphasized because it offends the cultural
identity of indigenous peoples in the region.

* To create strong alliances of farmers and indigenous peoples, in the fight
against misappropriation and monopolization of their resources and
knowledge, as well as the fight against the colonial exploration of
biological diversity of the Amazon.

* To contribute to more transparency in the discussion about biopiracy, that
extends from vague suspicions to conspiracy theories, many times lacking
objectivity.


For further information, please contact:

Michael F. Schmidlehner
mailto:michael@amazonlink.org


_________________________________________________________
ABOUT GRAIN -- For general information about GRAIN, please visit our website
http://www.grain.org or write us at mailto:grain@grain.org.


Hello Gill

Thanks for answering my note to Phytomedica! It was fascinating
to see what came out of it and who replied!

Yes I know about your monographs, but this is not really what we
need. Most of the plants we are dealing with have been tested over
and over and their properties and actions well know, I am pretty
sure that most of have been included in your monographs already
(or at least the species present in your area, not necessarily the same
species or strain as ours). What we need desperately is for the
WHOLE remedies to be tested either by the zones of inhibition
method or any other better and newer method that has been
discovered. But we want the actual product as it used by the
communities and the clinics to be tested AS IS.

I am sure you can see the difference and the value of this. For
instance the ointment made with a vaseline base will / should have
a different result to the same herbs used in a water or oil decoction
or as an water infusion or in an alcoholic tincture - because
different chemical constituents will be soluble and extracted
depending on which solvent / base is employed.

The heat to which it is subjected and length of time it is heated
would also be relevant. Distilling of the same herbs would also likely
produce different results? We use a small number of different plant
species, with these varied methods of preparation.

Is there anything you can suggest or someone who could help in
this way?

I really would love to get your monographs anyway. I did ask you
years ago at the TRAFFIC Conference at Kirstenbosch I think? How
much would they cost? You must have done quite a large number
by now?

Thanks again, I am cc'ing this to the person you suggested and had
also already written to Quinton Johnson at the suggestion of the
NRF IKS manager and had a short but enthusiastic reply, am waiting
to hear more.

I do need to know soon whether I can get any of this testing done
during 2003, and also how much it might cost, because I have to
send in my 2002 report and 2003 proposal to NRF before the end
of February.

Regards, Yvette

Date sent: Mon, 03 Feb 2003 12:57:13 +0200
From: gillscot <gillscot@iafrica.com>
Subject: Re: [Phytomedica] Testing of whole plant preparations
To: Phytomedica@yahoogroups.com
Send reply to: Phytomedica@yahoogroups.com


Show message history
Reply



• BIO-IPR docserver
________________________________________________________

TITLE: European Patent Office forced to reconsider DuPont patent on maize
Broad alliance challenges biopiracy
AUTHOR: Greenpeace
PUBLICATION: Press Release
DATE: 12 February 2003
URL: http://www.greenpeace.org/press/release?item_id=136484&campaign_id=
________________________________________________________


EUROPEAN PATENT OFFICE FORCED TO RECONSIDER DUPONT PATENT ON MAIZE
BROAD ALLIANCE CHALLENGES BIOPIRACY

Greenpeace
Munich, 12 February 2003


While the European Patent Office (EPO) was reconsidering a controversial
patent on maize currently held by a U.S. corporation DuPont, protestors from
a broad alliance of groups joined in front of the EPO building to protest
against biopiracy and patents on plants and seeds. The EPO is now obliged to
consider if the DuPont patent (EP 744888) issued in August 2000 ought to be
upheld in light of objections submitted by concerned parties, including the
Mexican government, church groups and Greenpeace.

In a symbolic action, four figures on stilts, dressed as managers of DuPont,
Monsanto, Bayer and Syngenta, the world's largest agro-multinational, were
tacking patent clips on plants and seeds around a three-meter globe. Other
70 activists attempted to protect the earth's agricultural diversity from
the figures on stilts, demanding "Stop Biopiracy" in seven languages.

The EPO patent (EP 744888) currently covers naturally and traditionally
cultivated maize with higher oil content. Maize with higher oil content is
already cultivated in many Latin American countries where the plant
originated. The patent holder DuPont claims patent rights on all products
for which this maize in used, such as cooking oil and animal feed.

"This is daylight robbery and the EPO is helping in the theft," said Ulrike
Brendel, Greenpeace expert on patents. "Obviously this maize is not a DuPont
invention but that is what they have a nerve to claim in order to rob the
people in Latin America who have cultivated and planted maize seeds for
thousands of years. We ask the EPO to halt this patent right away and
recognise that the current practice of granting them clearly goes too far."

DuPont has applied for at least 250 patents on seeds in Europe alone, and
some 40 have been granted.

In July, the Opposition Division of the EPO admitted that maize is not, in
fact, an invention; but so far the patent has not been cancelled.

Up till now the EPO has granted more than 300 patents on plants and seeds.
At present, the EPO routinely refers to the controversial EU Directive
98/44/CE on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions. The
practice is considered questionable as the new EU patent directive
contradicts the legal foundation of the EPO, which is the European Patent
Convention that forbids the patenting of plant varieties and animal species.
As 11 countries now belonging to the EPO are not members of the European
Union, many experts believe the EPO cannot apply the EU directive.
Furthermore, the majority of EU member states is still struggling with the
directive and has not yet implemented it.


For further information contact:

Ulrike Brendel, Greenpeace, Mob: +49-171-8780844 or
Christoph Then, Greenpeace, Mob: +49-171-8780832


_________________________________________________________
ABOUT THIS LISTSERVER -- BIO-IPR is an irregular listserver put out by
Genetic Resources Action International (GRAIN). Its purpose is to circulate
information about recent developments in the field of intellectual property
rights related to biodiversity & associated knowledge. BIO-IPR is a strictly
non-commercial and educational service for nonprofit organisations and
individuals active in the struggle against IPRs on life. The views expressed
in each post are those of the indicated author(s).
HOW TO PARTICIPATE -- To get on the mailing list, send the word "subscribe"
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Greetings to the Group,
I invite you all to read this latest article on Sita Ashok
(Saraca indica) as medicinal herb in Chhattisgarh, India : Natural
Occurrence, Traditional Medicinal knowledge and Trade.

Research Note - P.Oudhia


For the natives and traditional healers of Chhattisgarh, Sita Ashok
is valuable medicinal herb. Since generations, they are aware of
unique medicinal properties and uses of Sita Ashok. It is an integral
part of every home garden in Chhattisgarh. It is common belief in
Chhattisgarh that presence of this herb in home gardens save the
family members from all types of diseases and ill spirits. It is
planted in north direction in home gardens. It is also common belief
that presence of this herb in home gardens, destroys the bad or
harmful effects of other herbs. The rich natives fond of ornamental
Cactus species never miss to plant this herb in home gardens in order
to save their family members from the harmful effects (?) of spiny
species. You will be surprised to know that the persons suffering
from mental disorder are advised to take bath under the shade of Sita
Ashok tree. For mental piece, the natives prepare special Herbal Mala
using root pieces of Sita Ashok and give it to the patients. During
my ethnobotanical survey in different parts of Chhattisgarh, I have
observed that there is confusion on correct species of Sita Ashok. In
the name of Sita Ashok, most of the natives belonging to young
generation plant another species Polyalthia longifolia. Botanically
there are many basic differences in both species. According to the
old natives and traditional healers, Polyathia (also known as Bangali
Ashok) is having different medicinal properties and uses and it is
not substitute to Sita Ashok in home garden. Many healers informed me
that the presence of this species in home garden may result in
adverse effects. In the name of Ashok, this species have been planted
in public places all over the Chhattisgarh. My surveys revealed that
there is a strong need to aware the common natives about true species
of Ashok. This is positive sign that most of the natives, both from
young and old generations are aware of medicinal properties and uses
of Ashok but in identification they are poor. The natives involve in
nursery business are also weak in identification. The same is the
case of local herb shop owners. In name of Ashok bark, they give the
bark of Polyathia species. Seeing this problem, with the help of
biochemist friend, we are trying to develop special but simple
chemical test. We are sure that our test can help the natives to
check the adulteration easily. Although this is good answer that our
forefathers were aware of unique properties of Sita Ashok and in
order to conserve this herb forever, they instructed their young
generations to plant it in home gardens after associating some
important information with (that are available as common beliefs
amongus today) it but as researcher I am eager to know more
explanation on why the presence of this herb, destroys the harmful
effects of other herbs ? Whey it is planted in north direction ? and
also what is reason behind instructing the patients suffering from
mental disorders to take bath under Sita Ashok ? Although at present
we are unable to answer these questions but we are sure that all
these information are having the scientific base and through detailed
research our researcher will try to explain it, as it is must for
educated and intellectual coming generations.

For complete article,please visit at
http://www.botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/91_sita.html

regards
P.OUDHIA
http://www.celestine-india.com/pankajoudhia


• PUBLIC POLICY ON MEDICINAL PLANTS
N.Z.Nyazema
Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical School.
P.O. Box A 178, Avondale
Harare, Zimbabwe
E-mail: Nnyazema@healthnet.zw

Due to various reasons, it is very difficult to ensure the achievement of the goal of Health for All by the year 2000. The problems now being faced may not be susceptible to approaches that have been applied in the past. We cannot continue doing what we have always done. Tomorrow cannot be just more of yesterday. We need flexibility and pragmatism.
Dr. Nakajima, WHO Director General address to the Executive Board, 1994

A.Medicinal Drug Policy

In the progress report on TM and modern health care presented by Director General Dr. Nakajima at the 44th World Health Assembly in 1991, it was stated:

"The activities in TM that WHO undertakes, in response request from member states, are those that support member states in their efforts to formulate national policies on TM;

*To study the potential usefulness of TM, including evaluation of practices and investigating of the safety and efficacy of traditional remedies,
* to upgrade the knowledge and skills of traditional and modern practitioners,
* to educate and inform the community about proven traditional health practices".

In the same report the Director General pointed out that:

"WHO collaborates with its member states in the review of national policies, legislation and decisions on the nature and extent of the use of TM in their health systems. Activities include cooperation with ministries of health in establishing policies into primary health care programmes".
The decision to make TM programmes as a part of the WHO global programme concerned with drug management and policies recognizes the importance of plants as source products of medicinal value. The WHO regional office for Eastern Mediterranean produced guidelines for national policy on traditional TM in 1993 (Zhang, 1994).

The needs and mechanisms for establishing or revising a national medicinal drug policy to maximal benefit of the populations had earlier had been outlined through the WHO action programme on Essential Drugs and Vaccines in 1977 (WHO, 1977). These concepts were strongly re-emphasized at WHO conference on the rational use of drug in Nairobi in 1985 (WHO, 1985). The conference expressed overwhelming support for the suggestions that governments should formulate and implement national medicinal drug policies as an integral part of comprehensive national health policy for attaining the goal of health for all by the year 2000. The goal was inspired by the principle of social equity.

It is now accepted that, in order to form the soundest possible socio-economic and health economic basis for the regulatory and other decisions to be made along the health and drug chain, various audit systems have to be established. By principle such audit involves three sequential phases;



* collection and compilation of all relevant facts and premises;
* data organization and analyses by competent auditors;
* decision, implementation and re-evaluation, with subsequent adjustments.

These ambitious goals were reflected in the WHO definition of Drug Utilization; "The marketing, distribution, prescribing and use of drugs in society, with special emphasis on the resulting medical, social and economic consequences" (WHO 1977). This global definition should have included drug development and research. Without realizing the pluralism of the problems to be handled, the development of a comprehensive strategy in the health and medicinal drugs will almost fail.

Zimbabwe has a comprehensive health policy based on the principle of social equity, and a national medicinal drug policy based on the essential drug concept. The overall goal of the drug policy which has four linked goals (Fig 5.1) is:

To improve and sustain, with the available resources, the health of the majority of the population of Zimbabwe by treating, curing, reducing or preventing diseases and conditions through the use of safe, effective, good quality and affordable essential pharmaceutical products.

One of the objectives of the policy is:
To develop, monitor, regularly review, improve and advocate appropriate drug legislation and regulation with regard to allopathic and traditional medicines.

Traditional Medicines

Aim: To investigate the use of effective and safe traditional medicines at primary level.

The aim will be achieved through the encouragement of traditional healers to work more closely with the formal health care sector, although this will not necessarily be aimed at making them part thereof. The appropriate traditional healers' organization will be encouraged to compile and develop a "Code of Practice".
Traditional healers will be encouraged to co-operate with other workers in the formal health sector, particularly in programmes such as immunization monitoring and AIDS management.
Traditional medicines will be investigated for efficacy, safety and quality with a view to incorporating their use in the health care system.
Marketed traditional medicines will be registered and controlled.

A national reference centre for traditional medicines will be established. Functions will include:
* development of a national database of indigenous plants that have been screened for efficacy and toxicity,
* testing for toxicity and efficacy,
* compiling a national formula of Medicines Control Council approved "essential traditional medicines",
* propagation of medicinal plants.
Source: National Drug Policy for South Africa, 1996

It is indeed interesting to note that the South African drug policy incorporates propagation of medicinal plants. Presumably this is to encourage the domestication strategy which has several advantages as shown in Table 5.1

Table 5.1 Collection from the wild versus cultivation of medicinal plants

________________________________________________________________________

Collection Cultivation

________________________________________________________________________

Availability Decreasing Increasing

Fluctuation of supply Unstable More controlled & quality

Quality control Poor High

Botanical identification Sometimes Not

Genetic Improvement No yes

Agronomic manipulation No Yes

post harvesting handling Poor Usually good

Adulteration Likely Relatively safe

________________________________________________________________________

The process of domestication of medicinal plants is divided into two different activities: at the natural or the cultivation site.

The investigations and observations at the natural location include: systematic botany, climatic conditions, soil properties, plants development and plant physiology, reproduction, natural propagation and susceptibility to pests and diseases.

The studies at the cultivation site include the following aspects: propagation methods, genetic improvement, advanced cultural practices, protection against weed and pests, optimal timing of harvest, advent of mechanization, post harvest treatments, handling of the raw material, quality control and phytochemical analysis as described in chapter.
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 show what can be achieved when agronomy is applied to medicinal plant conservation.

Table 5.1 Improvement of medicinal plants through induced mutations
_______________________________________________________________________



Plant species Genetic improvement

________________________________________________________________________



Solanum khasianum High yield, high content of glycoalkaloids, reduction of spine frequency

Solanum laciniatum Early flowering, high yield of berries, high content of glycoalkaloids

Dioscorea spp. Increased yield and diosgenin content

Datura spp. Increased yield

Papver somniferum High morphine content

________________________________________________________________________

Table 5.2
Genetic improvement of medicinal plants by using polyploidy breeding techniques
________________________________________________________________________

Plant species Polyploidy Crop improvements Reference

in the polyploidy
_______________________________________________________________________

Solanum

Khasianum 4n Increase of solasodine Bhatt & Heble 1978

content by 35 - 40%

4n increase of plant height Bhatt, 1977

and total fruit yield



Catharanthus

roseus 4n Increase in ajmalicine Krishnana et al,

content of the roots, root 1985

weight, total alkaloids in

the leaves and roots.

4n Larger stomata, broader Dnyansager &

leaves, slower growth rate, Sudakaran, 1970

` higher pollen sterility

4n Increase in total number Kulkurani et al,

of branches per plants, 1984

average leaf weight, seed

weight and seed number

per follicle



Papaver 4n Increased thebaine content World et al., 1984

bracteatum

4n Increase in thebaine Milo et al., 1987

content but not the

thebaine per plant

3n High thebaine content only Ibid.

in the first season



Trigonella 4n Luxurious growth with Anis & Aminuddin.

foenumgraecum slightly lower disgenin 1985

content



Costus speciosus 3n,4n Lower disgenin content Jabjau-Annak &

Nagendra-prassad

1984
_______________________________________________________________________

B. Valuing Biodiversity
In recent years, environmentalists and economists have been attempting to describe the different components of value derived from the natural environment (Munasinghe, 1992). Paul and Mary Ehrlich, American ecologists known for their popular books about the environment, divide the value that people gain from nature into four categories (Erhlich and Ehrlich, 1992). Direct economic value is derived from food, construction materials, medicinal plants and other goods harvested from natural areas, as well as from recreational facilities and other services. Indirect economic values refers to benefits provided by various other environmental services, including regulating climate, purifying water, maintaining the fertility of soils and absorbing waste products. Aesthetic value, based on the appreciation of the beauty of nature, is manifested when people engage in ecological tourism, including birdwatching, nature photography, scuba diving and hiking. It may also be derived from the more abstract pleasure of knowing that natural areas, plants and wild animals are available even if a person never travels to see them. Ethical value, comes from belief, common to many cultures, that life has intrinsic significance - its value is derived simply from the fact that it exists. The overall significance of natural areas, for example, based on these four categories, is potentially immense, but is rarely taken into account by traditional economists, who typically base their estimates only on direct economic value.
Visits to marketplaces in Zimbabwe and some producer communities can be used to assess the value and conservation status of some species. This should then be followed by a comprehensive national policy on plants that have economic value as described above.

* A national or medicinal plants addresses issues related to:
* ethno-medical and botanical surveys,
* the development of an information system and data base,
* priority setting for clinical and scientific research. This is important when biologically active compounds have been isolated. Otherwise research could be carried out with plant materials simulating what occurs in traditional medical practice.
* drug trials on animals testing safety and efficacy,
* herbal licensing.
In Zimbabwe herbal remedies range from, plants that people collect themselves for self medication, to approved medicinal products. The percentage of sales of unlicensed preparations that have found their way on to the market because of economic liberalization is not known. It is reasonable to assume that it could be sizable, particularly in urban areas. Legislation requires herbal products to be authorized for marketing if they are industrially produced, especially if their presentation or their function, or both, bring them inside Zimbabwean's definition of a medicinal product. They must therefore have a certificate of good manufacturing practice. Unfortunately, at this point in time, the drawing of sharp borderlines is difficult. This means that alot of herbal products or herbal medicines remain unregistered. Many of the products do not have any data on efficacy, safety and quality. The Medicine Control Authority of Zimbabwe ( MCAZ), would have to dilute the requirement for registration thereby introducing double standards, which would obviously be controversial. Be that as it may, the regulatory control is to safeguard public interest.

Traditional herbal remedies in Zimbabwe vary from well known ones with excellent safety records to potentially dangerous ones. Furthermore, some herbs may be contaminated with undeclared heavy metals, poisonous insect material (Fig. 5.2) or modern pharmaceuticals. This means that a typical consumer consulting with a traditional healer is unable to distinguish safe and less safe herbal preparation. In the case of industrially processed herbal materials, these can escape regulatory evaluation before marketing by being presented as food supplements. A remarkable consequence of this bypass is that the burden of providing data on safety and quality (which in the case of pharmaceutical rests on the vendor) shifts completely to the MCAZ: It has to show that a product is unsafe, while that product may be sold without any of the objective product information needed to counterbalance the often critical literature on them.

As outlined in the chapter on the need for regulation, there has to be regulations on the way medicinal plants are utilized. The legislation should be all encompassing and aimed at the conservation of wild plants in order for people to value the biodiversity of medicinal plants. Bearing in mind that as private property they can be destroyed by their owners and as a free product of nature they can be collected by anyone almost anywhere at any time. Ideally, legislation on exploitation and management of medicinal plants should address:

1.)Prevention of over-collection;
Several techniques exist for harvesting bulk quantities of plants in a sustainable way.
Sustainable Harvesting of bulk plant samples
Anyone involved in ethnobotanical or phytochemical research activities should be concerned about over-collection of plants. Greater attention should be paid to the methods of sampling and collecting to avoid over harvesting (Hall and Bawa 1993). It is important to protect supplies for local resource users, such as house wives and traditional healers, as well as for ensuring conservation of genetic diversity.
* It is paramount that before harvesting any plant, background bibliographic research is carried out.

* The research should focus on distribution, abundance and reproductive biology.

* Large and mature plants that can better withstand the impact of harvesting than small or immature ones should be chosen.

* Necessary measures should be taken to guarantee that species can continue to produce new vegetative growth or seeds after being harvested.

* If the whole plant is to be collected some individuals should be allowed to remain in each stand.

* Enough foliage should be left on the plant to allow continued growth and reproduction, when picking leaves from large herbaceous plants and shrubs, just like what is done when picking tea or tobacco.

* On trees or shrubs, the harvesting should be done from side branches rather than the main trunk and branches.

* Flowers and fruits should be collected in such a manner that enough reproductive material is left to ensure that there is sufficient seed set for production of new seedlings in coming years.

Special care is required when harvesting bark and root. Bark should be stripped from opposite sides of the trunk or branches, to allow the tree to survive and the bark to regrow eventually. Many root-like organs, such as rhizomes, tubers and bulbs, are actually modified stems. These often have buds which allow vegetative reproduction even if some part of the root is harvested. Woody plants that have complex root systems can survive if most of the roots are left intact. A large portion of the bark and the root system should therefore be left in order to stimulate regeneration of the species.

There is need to experiment with various methods of sustainable harvest to see which is the most effective. These methods need to be brought to the attention of herbalists and to involve them in the experimentation. There are several plants that can be brought under cultivation and the abundance of others increased through various horticultural techniques.

Biotechnological methods presently available for plant improvement reflect a set of goals which is well known in conventional plant breeding:

* The selection of the desired traits
* The increase of variability
* The achievement of homozygosity
* The introduction of new genes into cultivars.

2.) The issue of permits as management instruments;

The advantage of a permit system is that it allows for considerable flexibility, at the discretion of the authorities, on the way collection is to proceed. There is no need, therefore, to adopt special regulations governing the collection of each species of medicinal plant. To close an area to collection, either permanently or on a rotational basis, all that is needed is to refrain from issuing permits authorizing collection in that area. Similarly, the quantities that may be collected may vary from one permit to another, according to areas or dates; the total number of permits may be also limited. Clear stated conditions must be attached to each permit issued. These should include what part of the plant is to be collected; what implement is to be used and the method which may unnecessarily damage the plants or system.

The permit system must be based on good scientific data and its enforcement must also be reasonable.

3.)Management plans;

For the above mentioned permit system to work, there has to be a management plan. The plan must be based on adequate knowledge of the distribution, conservation status and ecology of the medicinal plants. There is obvious need to make sure that there is adequate staff to operate the system. Such a system requires an effective type of penalty, for example the revocation of the permit, the prohibition to apply for a new permit for a certain period of time and revocation of the permit for life.

4.)Trade control;
In Zimbabwe any trade in medicinal plants should be subject to a permit. It will of course be difficult to control transactions between private persons and small scale local trade. In such cases there will not be much serious consequences. Prohibitions are, however, important as a deterrent. Dealers, growers, industries and laboratories, importers and exporters are easier to control provided that certain basic rules such as licensing and obligation to hold registers where all transactions are recorded, are provided and enforced. Trade controls requires adequately trained manpower to enforce trade and material transfer agreements
5.)Habitat protection

Medicinal plants habitat need to be protected from activities unconnected with collection, such as agriculture, forestry or construction. Legislation must be supported by adequate land-use controls and management plan. It is important that biological processes which govern the reproduction of the plant species are preserved. This means that the pollinators and / or seed dispersers of the species, and perhaps also their habitat may need to be protected by regulations.
The afore mentioned are some ways to organize sustainable exploitation on a sound basis. In 1993 Zimbabwe ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (Appendix 5.2) paving the way for a considerable attention of the preservation of biodiversity. Unfortunately, while preservation of biodiversity has remained a widely discussed issue in scientific circles on the value of diversity to crops, little debate has taken place on the value of biodiversity on the pharmaceutical market.

Probably the most daunting aspect of the biodiversity issue, when it comes to medicinal plants, is our almost complete ignorance of the magnitude of both the problem itself and the potential benefits that may be lost or retained. There is therefore greater need to examine the pharmaceutical facet of the biodiversity question.

The very different nature of the two aspects of biodiversity, crop and medicinal plants suggests that their importance to the public at large must be evaluated from different perspectives. The most obvious difference is that the value of crop biodiversity can be demonstrated within one or two crops cycles. In contrast, the value of medicinal plant species takes considerably longer to establish, and the conceptual link between the plant and the final drug is far more tenuous than with crops.

Another major problem is that because the number of plants that have been thoroughly evaluated for pharmacological potential is very small, the vast majority of medicinal plants in Zimbabwe have no identified market value, either in terms of an existing product or use. However, as a group, medicinal plants will have a positive value because there is a positive probability that their value will be greater than zero.

For the purpose of trying to assess the value of medicinal plants, four categories have been suggested:
1.Those that have not been investigated or that have been investigated but have not been found to be pharmacologically active;
2.Those that have been found to be pharmacologically active and whose active ingredient(s) can be economically synthesized;
3.Those that have been found to be pharmacologically active and whose active ingredient(s) have not been created synthetically; and
4.Those that have been investigated and found to have useful information (structure or mechanism) that is used in pharmaceuticals.

If only the direct cost of loss of these plants were considered what is probably their greatest value would be ignored: the information contained in their genetic structure and the chemicals that this structure produces. Many plants in Category 1 are likely to possess some information or produce some chemical that may be needed in the future.

Several people have discussed the degree of uncertainty surrounding the loss of biodiversity. Given this large uncertainty, it is difficult to acquire and sustain the attention of government officials who establish policy. Governments, in general, do not deal very effectively with uncertainty, especially when there is a requirement to take positive action. There are so many competing issues that appear to have a more immediate need for attention that those issues without a sense of immediacy are assigned a lower priority. However, unlike most such issues, not acting on biodiversity has irreversible consequences that must be highlighted. Actions to preserve biodiversity will also preserve options for the future. By not taking action to preserve biodiversity those options will be irretrievably lost. There is need to consider both the economic and scientific aspects of the problem in a unified fashion in order to develop an effective public policy on medicinal plants in Zimbabwe. The Chian Mai Declaration (1988), Saving Lives by Saving Plants, sums it all up nicely (Akerele et al., 1991).

Trade Secrets and Material Transfer Agreements

In Zimbabwe Intellectual Property is protected by a formal system, based on specially enacted law. In a situation where a person is not aware that they could register their patents, particularly in the case of traditional healers, they can keep their invention or indeed knowledge, a secret. Keeping everything a secret allows a process or formulation or recipe to have a commercial advantage, as long as others do not know it.

The advantage of keeping everything a secret is that it can last a long time. However there is a disadvantage. Like everything in life, it will become increasing difficult to keep. If it is traditional herbal remedy preparation, someone will take the time to analyze and disclose it to anybody who might be interested. One can have a license of a trade secret though the risk of the secret becoming known is high.

Despite its disadvantages, trade secrecy is still widely used, even where alternatives are available. It is particularly important in the case of biological materials that are not sold, but only used in production. For example, a particular plant line used to make hybrid which produces more of a certain compound can usually be kept the secret property of the originator. In such cases, the inventor may prefer trade secrecy to patenting, as patenting requires the invention to be published.

It is very difficult to maintain a secret in the medicinal plant trade. However, where the trade secret takes the form of a proprietary material (such as micro organism, gene construct or seed) it will be transferred under a confidentiality or materials transfer agreement.

The Biodiversity Convention

The Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted in Nairobi on 22 May 1992, twelve years after Zimbabwe's Independence. It was opened for signature and signed during the United nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and parallel NGO meetings, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992 by over 150 countries, including Zimbabwe. It is now known as the Rio Earth Summit. The convention is a legally binding agreement for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. It came into force on 29 December 1993.

Objectives

* Conservation of biological diversity to be pursued in accordance with the relevant provisions of the convention

* Sustainable use of variability within and among species and ecosystems

* Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including appropriate access to genetic resources and transfer of relevant technologies and appropriate funding, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding.

Partnership

Between the developed country parties that have biotechnology (Article 16; Access to and Transfer of Technology) and finance (Article 20; Financial Resources) and the developing country parties that have biodiversity.

Article 3 talks about the principle that states have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the Principles of the International Law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other states or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

Access to genetic resources is addressed in Article 15 of the Convention.

Obligations
* The development of national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (Article 6)
* The identification and monitoring of biodiversity (Article 7)
* In situ conservation of biodiversity (Article 8) and ex situ conservation (Article 9)
* Research and training (Article 12) and public education (Article 13)
* Assessment of impact on biodiversity of development projects (Article 14)
* Respect of Intellectual Property Rights, wherever they are nationally recognized, which must, however, conform to the objectives of the Convention (Article 16)

*Information exchange (Article 17)
* Technical and scientific cooperation (Article 18) (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992)

REFERENCES

Zhang, X (1994). WHO's Policy and Activities on Traditional Medicines. In: Proceedings of an International Workshop on Traditional Health Systems and Public Policy (Eds Islam,. A and Wiltshire, R) IDRC, Ottawa, pp 138-142

WHO (1977). The selection and use of essential drugs. WHO Tech Rep Ser no 615.
WHO, (1987). Conference of experts on the rational use of drugs, Nairobi, Kenya 25-29 November 1985. WHO 1987
Department of Health, (1996) National Drug Policy for South Africa, Government of the Republic of South Africa. Printers, Cape Town pp 24
Munasinghe, M. (1992). Biodiversity protection policy: environmental valuation and distribution issues. Ambia 21, 227-236

Erhlich, P.R. and Erhlich, A.H., (1992). The value of biodiversity. Ambio 21, 219-226.
Hall, P. and Bawa, K. (1993). Methods to assess the impact of extraction of non-timber tropical forest products on plant populations. Economic Botany, 47 (3), 234-247.
The Chiang Mai Declaration, Saving Lives by Saving Plants (1988). In; Conservation of Medicinal Plants (Eds Akerele, O. Hey wood, V. And Synge, H.) Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, United Nations Environmental Programme UNEP
•
• Greetings to the Group,
I invite you all to read this new article on Traditional
Medicinal Knowledge about useful herb Giloi (Tinospora cordifolia) in
Chhattisgarh, India

Research Note - P.Oudhia


Giloi is common climber in dense forests of Chhattisgarh. Due to
over -exploitation, its natural population is decreasing at alarming
rates in the state. It is in list of non-wood forest produces having
heavy regular demand. The traders at national and international drug
markets are well aware of its natural occurrence in Chhattisgarh
forests. From two years, with this help of traditional healers, I am
keeping close view on its trade from the state. The is very
interesting but bitter fact that over exploitation of Giloi is
resulting in disappearance of many associated herbs and insects. As
informed by the healers, some specific herbs grow in association with
this climber and they have specific relationship among them. In order
to study this relationship, the help of allelopathic studies was
taken. In these studies, I have observed the stimulatory allelopathic
effects of different parts of Giloi on associated herb. The leachates
were more promising as compared to the extracts. In general, Giloi
possess positive (inhibitory) allelopathic effects on other herbs.
This is interesting observation. The traditional healers of
Chhattisgarh also informed that the Giloi collected from cultivated
fields possess less medicinal properties as compared to the Giloi
collected from wild, particularly when it is collected from patches
having associated herbs in vicinity.

For complete article,please visit at
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/92_giloi.htm

regards
P.OUDHIA
http://www.celestine-india.com/pankajoudhia


Hello:
I have just joined this group, so this may have already been
discussed here, or many of you may already know about this. If so,
bear with me. I just wanted to make everyone aware of a course being
given June 16-June 27 on the Big Island of Hawaii. The senior
lecturers are Dennis Mckenna and Kat Harrison. It is a 12-day course
exploring the science of ethnobotany, ethnomedicine, and plants and
civilization through lectures, field trips, and diverse presentations
by local experts. It is open to anyone but students will earn four-
credits in this program through the University of Minnesota. On the
downside, it is quite an expensive endeavor. In fact, I feel a
little hypocritical posting this because I am not able to attend
myself due to lack of funds. I just believe it would be
educationally intensive and just a downright blast for those who may
have the means and the interest to attend. If you are interested you
can contact the Center for Spirituality and Healing at (612)624-5166
for all the details. The URL to check is:
www.cce.umn.edu/summer/programs/summerlearning
Well, thanks for hearing me out and it's great to be a part of this
group!
Thanks,
Troy Jump



• Unigen Pharmaceuticals Enters Plant Collection Collaboration Agreement
http://www.npicenter.com/index.asp?action=NBViewDoc&DocumentID=3961

.Broomfield, CO - February 12, 2003 - Unigen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., a leading natural products research and development facility and proprietary ingredients supplier, has announced a collaborative plant collection agreement with BioResources International, Inc. (BRI), a science-driven, bioprospecting company engaged in research and commercial development of high-value natural products from tropical biodiversity. BRI will source, collect and identify plants with ethnomedicinal use that are indigenous to Ghana, as well as provide Unigen with historical usage and taxonomic data specific to each plant. Unigen will apply natural products chemistry and high throughput screening to fractionate the plant actives in order to discover novel and efficacious active ingredients for use in the nutritional supplement, functional food and beverage, and cosmeceutical industries, as well as drug leads for the pharmaceutical industry.

Both companies will collaborate on plant sourcing and cultivation, plant identification and recollection, plant extraction, and isolation of pure compounds. The bioactive plant fractions will then be further tested in Unigen's laboratory via an assortment of biochemical, genomic and cell assays to determine the potential for positive reaction in a human system while targeting how the botanical compound responds chemically with each cell. Both companies agree to work side by side in the development and commercialization of botanical compounds from tropical forests.

"BioResources International Inc. is excited to embark upon this plant sourcing and product development agreement with a company as well-established and respected as Unigen Pharmaceuticals, Inc." sail Dr. Kodzo Gbewonyo, president of BioResources International Inc. "BRI has extensive experience in bioprospecting activities in Ghana, including prior collaborations with Missouri Botanical Gardens, to support drug discovery efforts of major U.S. pharmaceutical companies and research institutions."

"Along with our sister company in South Korea, Unigen Asia, "stated Dr. Qi Jia, Unigen's Vice President of Scientific Affairs, "Unigen's PhytoLogixTM library includes more than 3,000 medicinal plants from 12 different countries, over 5,000 plant extracts and 200,000 fractions and compounds. As a result of this agreement, we look forward to increasing the biodiversity of our collection and to accelerating commercialization of efficacious natural compounds of West African origin."

Both Unigen and BioResources International operate in compliance with the United Nations "Convention on Biological Diversity" with a commitment to promote conservation and sustainable use of tropical medicinal plants native to Ghana, technology transfer to source countries, benefit sharing and recognition of the value of traditional knowledge, as well as economic development of local communities.

# # #

About Unigen Pharmaceuticals:

Unigen Pharmaceuticals, Inc. is a leading natural products research and development facility and proprietary ingredients supplier. The company is dedicated to the discovery of botanically derived therapeutic compounds that address consumer health needs and help improve the quality of human life. Unigen (www.unigenpharma.com), and sister company Aloecorp, are subsidiaries of Univera, Inc. Each company focuses on identifying and studying the unique ingredients of medicinal botanicals and then formulating proprietary raw materials for use in cosmeceutical, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products.

About BioResources International:

BioResources International, Inc. is a science-driven company engaged in research and commercial development of high-value natural products from tropical biodiversity. The company, headquartered in Somerset, New Jersey, has operations in Ghana, West Africa, through its local subsidiary, BioResources (Ghana) Ltd. BioResources provides services in medicinal plant collection to support natural product discovery as well as bulk sourcing of botanical ingredients from West Africa to the dietary supplement, food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. For more information contact: Dr. Kodzo Gbewonyo BioResources International Inc. P. O. Box 6595, Somerset, NJ 08875 Tel# 732-249-8615/Fax #732-545-0663 e-mail: gbewonyo@aol.com. And website: www.Miraculin.com.

Media Contacts:
Susan Westfall, Principal Regan Miles, V.P. - Sales & Marketing
Westfall Communications Unigen Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
303-926-4093 303-438-8666 x11
SusanWestfall@earthlink.net ReganMiles@earthlink.net

---------------------
Native species being plundered for medicines, scientist says
22 February 2003
http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,2280657a7693,00.html


Foreigners are secretly plundering New Zealand native species to develop patented medicines, a conference in Wellington was told yesterday.

Kristy Hall, a University of Auckland post-graduate environmental science student, was speaking at the Museum of New Zealand, Te Papa, on international impacts of bioprospecting - the discovery of useful chemicals in living organisms.

"Bioprospecting - and arguably 'biopiracy' - is already occurring in New Zealand," Ms Hall said.

Foreign and New Zealand companies had used Maori traditional knowledge without consultation to develop bio-drugs with no benefits to New Zealanders including Maori, she said.

Bioprospecting may be worth up to $390 billion worldwide and includes finding new drugs, gene sequences, ornamental plants and crops. The United Nations Convention of Biological Diversity encourages countries to "facilitate access" to living resources and into "benefit sharing" of bioprospecting.

"New Zealand is a prime target for bioprospecting but at present there are no guidelines or regulations governing bioprospecting activities in New Zealand," Ms Hall said.

"If we do not consider this issue, we may miss out on benefits and opportunities."

University of Auckland Business School director Manuka Henare said Maori, not the Crown, would own native species' genetic resources, if the Treaty of Waitangi native flora and fauna claim was upheld. In that event it would be up to Maori to facilitate access and share benefits.

New Zealand law allows the patenting of new bio-active materials, which would not necessarily benefit Maori.

An inter-governmental committee of the World Intellectual Property Organisation is looking into preventing patents related to traditional knowledge being granted to third parties.

Environment Australia spokesman Geoff Burton said Australia was already developing rules for bioprospecting. He knew of genetic collectors who had destroyed rare species sites to ensure they had a unique sample of the dna.

If Australians were to benefit from bioprospecting, companies needed incentives to do their work, he said. The chances of finding useful material could be as little as one in 100,000.

Crop and Food Research business manager Stephen Lorimer said the crown research institute was bioprospecting South American flower species for new ornamental varieties.

In response to a question by The Dominion Post, Dr Lorimer said he would not reveal which species were being collected.
• How to implement sustainability: The role of CITES
The principal tool for monitoring or restricting trade of species threatened by over-exploitation is the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES, which entered into force in 1975. The 158 national governments who currently have signed CITES are obliged to monitor and control international trade in the plants and animals listed in its two main Appendices.

Appendix I prohibits trade in wild specimens, except for reasons such as scientific research. Appendix II requires parties to issue export permits that confirm non-detrimental harvest of listed species, and requires importing countries who are Parties to CITES to check and monitor permits on incoming material. It is important to note that for Appendix II species it is solely the country of export that decides whether to issue a permit or not.

Having become parties to CITES, national governments are required to establish or designate scientific authorities to conduct non-detriment studies for listed species, and management authorities to issue permits and certificates.



Table 9. List of plant species which have been included in the CITES Appendices because of trade for medicinal purposes

Species
Family
Date of inclusion in CITES
Appendix

Adonis vernalis Ranunculaceae
16.8.2000
II

Aquilaria malaccensis
Thymelaeaceae
16.2.1995
II

Cistanche deserticola Orobanchaceae
16.8.2000
II

Dioscorea deltoidea
Dioscoreaceae
1.7.1975
II

Guaiacum officinale
Zygophyllaceae
11.6.1992
II

Guaiacum sanctum
Zygophyllaceae
1.7.1975
II

Hydrastis canadensis
Ranunculaceae
18.9.1997
II

Nardostachys grandiflora
Valerianaceae
18.9.1997
II

Panax ginseng
only populations of the Russian Federation Araliaceae
16.8.2000
II

Panax quinquefolius
Araliaceae
1.7.1975
II

Picrorhiza kurrooa
Scrophulariaceae
18.9.1997
II

Podophyllum hexandrum
Berberidaceae
18.1.1990
II

Prunus africana
Rosaceae
16.2.1995
II

Pterocarpus santalinus
Leguminosae
16.2.1995
II

Rauvolfia serpentina
Apocynaceae
18.1.1990
II

Saussurea costus
Asteraceae (Compositae)
1.7.1975 App. II 1.8.1985 App. I
I

Taxus wallichiana
Taxaceae
16.2.1995
II


Species can be added, removed, or shifted between Appendices through proposals passed at biennial meetings of the signatories, or Conferences of the Parties. 17 species have been added to CITES Appendices because of their exploitation as medicinal plants, the majority of them in the 1990's (Table 9).

For medicinal plant conservation, CITES accomplishes a number of tasks very well, including: (i) monitoring trade at the species level; (ii) focusing attention on high use, high priority species with global value; and (iii) calling international attention to threatened medicinal plant species.

As a conservation tool, CITES also has a number of limitations: (i) Many countries are reluctant to support inclusion of important commercial species on CITES, even when there is justification for restricting or monitoring trade, for fear of losing needed international exchange. (ii) Internal trade is not monitored. (iii) A substantial amount of international trade is not monitored because exported material, such as dried bark and extracts, can be difficult to tie to particular species. (iv) CITES focuses on species that are already threatened, rather than preventing the threat.
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• ow to implement sustainability: The role of CITES
The principal tool for monitoring or restricting trade of species threatened by over-exploitation is the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES, which entered into force in 1975. The 158 national governments who currently have signed CITES are obliged to monitor and control international trade in the plants and animals listed in its two main Appendices.

Appendix I prohibits trade in wild specimens, except for reasons such as scientific research. Appendix II requires parties to issue export permits that confirm non-detrimental harvest of listed species, and requires importing countries who are Parties to CITES to check and monitor permits on incoming material. It is important to note that for Appendix II species it is solely the country of export that decides whether to issue a permit or not.

Having become parties to CITES, national governments are required to establish or designate scientific authorities to conduct non-detriment studies for listed species, and management authorities to issue permits and certificates.



Table 9. List of plant species which have been included in the CITES Appendices because of trade for medicinal purposes

Species
Family
Date of inclusion in CITES
Appendix

Adonis vernalis Ranunculaceae
16.8.2000
II

Aquilaria malaccensis
Thymelaeaceae
16.2.1995
II

Cistanche deserticola Orobanchaceae
16.8.2000
II

Dioscorea deltoidea
Dioscoreaceae
1.7.1975
II

Guaiacum officinale
Zygophyllaceae
11.6.1992
II

Guaiacum sanctum
Zygophyllaceae
1.7.1975
II

Hydrastis canadensis
Ranunculaceae
18.9.1997
II

Nardostachys grandiflora
Valerianaceae
18.9.1997
II

Panax ginseng
only populations of the Russian Federation Araliaceae
16.8.2000
II

Panax quinquefolius
Araliaceae
1.7.1975
II

Picrorhiza kurrooa
Scrophulariaceae
18.9.1997
II

Podophyllum hexandrum
Berberidaceae
18.1.1990
II

Prunus africana
Rosaceae
16.2.1995
II

Pterocarpus santalinus
Leguminosae
16.2.1995
II

Rauvolfia serpentina
Apocynaceae
18.1.1990
II

Saussurea costus
Asteraceae (Compositae)
1.7.1975 App. II 1.8.1985 App. I
I

Taxus wallichiana
Taxaceae
16.2.1995
II


Species can be added, removed, or shifted between Appendices through proposals passed at biennial meetings of the signatories, or Conferences of the Parties. 17 species have been added to CITES Appendices because of their exploitation as medicinal plants, the majority of them in the 1990's (Table 9).

For medicinal plant conservation, CITES accomplishes a number of tasks very well, including: (i) monitoring trade at the species level; (ii) focusing attention on high use, high priority species with global value; and (iii) calling international attention to threatened medicinal plant species.

As a conservation tool, CITES also has a number of limitations: (i) Many countries are reluctant to support inclusion of important commercial species on CITES, even when there is justification for restricting or monitoring trade, for fear of losing needed international exchange. (ii) Internal trade is not monitored. (iii) A substantial amount of international trade is not monitored because exported material, such as dried bark and extracts, can be difficult to tie to particular species. (iv) CITES focuses on species that are already threatened, rather than preventing the threat.
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• Danna J. Leaman
Message 8 of 8 , Mar 20, 2003
View Source
On 4 March 2003 I responded to a query posted to the Phytomedica listserve
concerning the Top 50 Threatened Medicinal Plants. I refered to a proposed
set of steps and rationale for selecting priority medicinal plant species
for conservation research and action, published in two articles by Tony
Cunningham in the newsletter of IUCN/SSC Medicinal Plant Specialist Group,
"Medicinal Plant Conservation". These articles can now be found in pdf
files through the MPSG website
(http://iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/mpsg/main/top50.html).

Danna J. Leaman
Chair, IUCN/SSC Medicinal Plant Specialist Group
Reply

The information asked for is to be found on the following links ...

http://www.cites.org/ Main page ..

http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.shtml What is CITES

http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/how.shtml How CITES works

http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/species.shtml The Species

http://www.cites.org/eng/append/index.shtml The Appendices (Species


On Tue, 4 Mar 2003, Ivor Hughes wrote:


> Table 9. List of plant species which have been included in the
> CITES Appendices because of trade for medicinal purposes

> Hydrastis canadensis
> Ranunculaceae
> 18.9.1997
> II


It is hard to have much respect for CITES when the rules prohibit the
trade of live propagative material (e.g. rootlets) but freely allow
powdered products. This is the case with goldenseal. I'll never forget
the day when the Canadian authorities threatened us with jail and hefty
fines when they intercepted a shipment of live goldenseal rootlets that
were accompanied with a phytosanitary certificate (thus clearly
indicating that the rootlets for propagation). Meanwhile we continue to
import goldenseal root powder sans CITES documentation without incident.
Does this make any sense?

Now, of course, we comply with the CITES rules fully, but we think that
they are badly flawed.

Conrad Richter

RICHTERS HERBS --- RICHTERS HERBS --- RICHTERS HERBS --- RICHTERS HERBS
------- 357 Highway 47, Goodwood, Ontario, L0C 1A0, Canada --------
Tel +1-905-640-6677 --- Fax +1-905-640-6641 --- http://www.richters.com
HERB PLANTS, SEEDS, BOOKS & MORE! -- FREE CATALOG: catalog@richters.com
Reply


--


Medicinal Plants of Kenya

For centuries plants have been used in the treatment of illness. From the calming property of the camomile flower, to the life force of guarana, around the world the healing powers of nature are in force.

But are such remedies old wives tales? Elements of witchcraft? Or can they work in conjunction with traditional treatments? In his third and final journey of Discovery, Paul Arnold travels to Kenya to join a group of scientists who are attempting to harness the power of plants.


Listen to the programme here


The road from Kisumu to the Rachuonyo District in Kenya is reasonably straight and not very busy. But nightfall and Kenyan drivers put paid to any hopes of a smooth journey. It wasn't other cars that were the problem but the hundreds of cyclists we encountered many of who had neither lights nor reflectors and wore dark clothing. That we didn't hit anyone was a testament to the excellent skills of our driver. Two police stops because of recent trouble in the area further hampered our progress. It's a route that Dr Hellen Oketch knows well as she regularly makes the journey from her office in the University of Nairobi.

Dying Art
We were visiting the local communities in the Southern Nyanza Districts where Oketch is leading a project to help make best use of knowledge and practices related to traditional medicine. Her team consists of scientists and volunteers recruited from the Earthwatch organisation. By interviewing herbalists about their medical practices the team are preserving knowledge that is in danger of dying out. It is not being passed to the younger generation and indeed many remedies have been lost as the information has died with the individual.

Bioprospecting
Like many places in the world traditional medicines are the primary sources of health care and have been in use since time immemorial. Their conservation is vital to people that do not have ready access to adequate medical resources. Although the communities are the immediate concern of the Medicinal Plants Project in the long run the scientific world may benefit. A logical extension of the work is to screen the most popularly used medicinals for biological activity. These may then become the basis for future drug therapies.

This form of bioprospecting has a chequered history. Communities have hardly ever benefited from commercial ventures derived from their knowledge and resources. But Oketch is keen to safeguard the interests of the people. She is working on reciprocal beneficial programmes to be put in place now as well as other forms of compensation should pharmaceuticals be developed. It may of course take more than a decade for any drug to be produced but this is made known to the herbalists. There are regular workshops and seminars where any concerns are raised and this is an important part in gaining the trust of the people.
'Traditional therapies have many components such as spiritualism and herbalism'


Complementary Medicine
One of Oketch's dreams is for a medical centre to be built where traditional and conventional medicine can sit side by side. Some land has been given to the project and at the moment it is being cleared but money and resources still have to be found to make this a reality.

Traditional remedies are viewed in many parts of the world with a heavy dose of scepticism, if not then with downright opposition. When Kenya was first colonised the Christina missions outlawed a practice they believed was dangerous and associated with witchcraft. Indeed there were some practitioners who may endanger the lives of their patients by some of the things they do, but traditional therapies have many components such as spiritualism and herbalism. The missionaries did not want to draw a distinction between people they viewed as witch doctors and herbalists. Whilst this stigma has remained it is changing, especially in areas such as Rachuonyo where there is only one university trained doctor per 40, 000 of the population.

The Luo people
During my stay I visited several communities living near a town called Oyugis, the Luo people made us all feel very welcome and fed and watered us at every available opportunity. They are very proud of their history and I was delighted to hear from the community elders how they came to live in the area. They explained that many years ago, long before the German explorers of the 18th century, Oyugi a very tall and handsome man convinced his people to move from the shores of Lake Victoria to the more fertile land higher up where there were abundant vegetables and fruit. To do this they overcame the indigenous tribe in a mighty battle and the community, and the communities today, are benefiting from Ouyugi's vision, as the soil always gives them good produce and they are able to welcome visitors.

Some people may question the value of projects such as The Medicinal Plants of Kenya, believing that traditional medicines would be abandoned if conventional pharmaceuticals were in abundance. In a sense this argument is redundant, as most of the world does not have easy access to pills, lotions and antibiotics. Traditional knowledge is under threat but with Oketch's help it may be protected and conserved in this part of East Africa.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/sci_tech/highlights/000907_arnold.shtml


• To: the Phytomedica listserve
4 March 2003

A "Top 50" llist of threatened medicinal plants does not exist - yet. I
will explain below, but first here is some general information about the
"Top 50" concept to provide some context:

The "Top 50" plant campaign was developed by the IUCN Species Survival
Commission Plant Conservation Committee and Plant Specialist Groups as a
communication tool to help save plant species that face a high risk of
global extinction by raising awareness among conservation practitioners,
decision-makers and the general public. Approach and criteria have been
under discussion for some time. In general terms, the campaign is meant to
highlight a selection of "flagship" species as a means for describing
broader issues and actions needed to save thousands of threatened plant
species around the world. At the heart of the campaign is a series of
booklets covering major taxonomic groups of species, or regions of the
world, containing profiles of the 50 selected species written in simple,
non-technical language. Each profile, illustrated with a photograph or
drawing, will include a description of the plant as well as information on
status, distribution, habitat and ecology, economic and cultural value,
threats, reasons for decline, actions underway, and those needed to help
save the species. The project draws on the extensive knowledge and
expertise of the 30 plant Specialist Groups of the IUCN Species Survival
Commission (SSC). A pilot project is just being completed by the
Mediterranean Plant Specialist Group.

Medicinal Plant "Top 50"

The value of a global "Top 50" for medicinal plants has been questioned by
members of the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group because it would not
accommodate enough species. Priority lists of threatened medicinal plant
species in some regions (e.g., Southern India) surpass 50. We have
therefore been working on a "Top 50" campaign approach that is not fixed on
a total number of species, but instead on the process of identifying species
that deserve this attention and, most important, how this process can
support the on-the-ground research and conservation action needed, and also
support collaboration with other organizations in global and regional lists
(e.g., species important in international trade / species important in
regional and local trade). Tony Cunningham proposed a set of steps and
rationale for selecting priority species in "Working towards a "Top 50"
Listing," in the MPSG newsletter, Medicinal Plant Conservation, vol. 2, pp.
4-6, April 1996. He provided further clarification of these steps in volume
3 ("The "Top 50" Listings and the Medicinal Plant Action Plan", pp. 5-7, 28
February 1997. These volumes are not yet available on our website
(http://mpsg.org), but I will try to get at least these articles posted to
the site soon. These revisions in the "Top 50" approach for medicinal
plants were based on discussion during the first formal meeting of the MPSG
in September 1996 in Nairobi, Kenya, during the 5th International Congress
of Ethnobiology

It's an understatement that developing a collaborative process takes time.
While development of the Top 50 concept has worked its way through the IUCN
plant specialist groups, the MPSG has made good progress in re-structuring
the membership into regional sub-groups around regional project
development, including the "Top 50" campaign, in South Asia, and we are just
getting a regional sub-group organized in Latin America. In both of these
regions there are results from trade surveys conducted by TRAFFIC, and in
South Asia there are results from conservation status assessment workshops
for medicinal plants as a solid starting point. The regional structure is
allowing us to expand the membership and develop partnerships with other
organizations. Doing the same in other regions is our intention, with
regional action plans, medicinal plant conservation strategies, and "Top 50"
campaigns as products.

Danna J. Leaman, PhD
Chair, Medicinal Plant Specialist Group
Species Survival Commission, IUCN-The World Conservation Union
Email: djl@green-world.org
Website: http://mpsg.org
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UN adviser urges focus on environmental 'hotspots'
http://www.scidev.net/frame3.asp?id=0303200315400745&t=N&authors=David%20Dickson&posted=3%20Mar%202003&c=1&r=1
A top adviser to United Nations chief Kofi Annan has suggested that a global system of environmental 'hotspots' could help to focus the attention of those responsible for implementing economic development policies.




UN adviser urges focus on environmental 'hotspots'

David Dickson



[LONDON] A top adviser to UN secretary general Kofi Annan has warned that the importance of preserving biodiversity in poor countries is not being adequately conveyed to those responsible for implementing economic development policies, and suggests that a global system of environmental 'hotspots' could help to focus their attention.



The warning has come from Jeffrey Sachs, director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University in New York, who heads a team advising Annan on how to achieve the so-called Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that were endorsed by more than 150 heads of state three years ago.



Speaking at a meeting in London yesterday (2 March), Sachs said that those keen to promote the preservation of biodiversity in poor countries have not yet found a way to get this issue taken seriously by senior economic advisors and policy makers in the world's leading development finance institutions.



Unless ecologists and environmental scientists were able to express their concerns in ways that were easily accessible to policy makers and could immediately be used by them, they were unlikely to make a major impact on decision-making.



One way of doing this, he suggested, would be to develop a global system for identifying and monitoring environmental 'hotspots'. The approach would be similar to that developed by ecologists to identify regions of high biological diversity; however the assessment of such hotspots would also take account of environmental degradation and local social and economic conditions.



"It would be very interesting to have a biodiversity 'hotspot' analysis that combined high [species diversity] with objective indicators of deteriorating conditions; we could then point to a region and say that a crisis existed because various indicators demonstrated that it was on a path to destruction," he said.



Sachs reported attending a meeting last week with leading development economists to discuss the next edition of the human development report to be published by the Unites Nations Development Programme (UNDP). This will focus on the steps needed to achieve the MDGs, which include specific targets for improving the health and living conditions of the world's poor



"The issue of the environment did not come up once during the discussion," Sachs told the London meeting, which was organised by the UNDP jointly with a number of environmental actions groups. "That is an indication of how disconnected the issues of biodiversity and environmental management are from the way that development issues are talked about by many development practitioners."



Sachs said that he was personally convinced that the biodiversity agenda was critical not only in its own right, but also for the future of the world's poorer people, many of whom depended on the environment for their livelihood.



He argued that the ecological setting in which people live has a profound impact on their economic prosperity, pointing out for example that most of the world's richer countries are in temperate regions, and do not face the extra burdens of disease and food production that face those living in tropical areas.



Furthermore, said Sachs, environmental stresses degrade the life support systems on which the very poor depend for their survival. It is in order to raise the profile of this issue in the eyes of decision-makers that he suggests using a modified version of the concept of biodiversity 'hotspots' that is used by ecologists.


"Our 'hotspots' are places that are both poor and not achieving economic development," Sachs said. "They are below a certain income threshold, which means that people are living in miserable conditions that are not improving. We are talking about places that are falling backward."


Such 'hotspots' would include much of tropical Africa, parts of the Andes (such as Bolivia and Ecuador), parts of Central America, and countries in the Middle East such as Afghanistan and Pakistan. "Absolutely nothing happens economically in these places except that people survive, their environment gets degraded, and other countries fight over their oil resources," Sachs said.



Attempts to focus funding on the needs of these regions has been hampered by the lack of mechanisms for identifying environmental 'hotspots' separately to those already identified as particularly rich in biodiversity. "As a result, we do not have any clear way of pointing out to economic policy makers that there are regions of great stress that need attention; here is the kind of attention that they need; and here are the costs and modalities of approaching those conditions."


Included in this needs to be an assessment of what could be achieved immediately, and those areas in which new scientific and technological developments were required in order to meet long-term goals.


He pointed out that this approach was already being developed in the health field, where there is a focus on the one hand on introducing effective services to fight diseases such as tuberculosis and AIDS, and at the same time a commitment to worldwide research efforts, for example on producing a vaccine for malaria or AIDS.


"For biodiversity it is the same issue," Sachs said. "We need to identify areas where there is a clear crisis of current management that needs to be resolved, and those areas where more science or research is needed - and, if it is needed, ways to get it done".

http://www.scidev.net/frame3.asp?id=0303200315400745&t=N&authors=David%20Dickson&posted=3%20Mar%202003&c=1&r=1


Dear All

Several phytomedicines have been proven effective against opportunistic
infections of HIV, if not against AIDS itself. Do any of you have a list of
citations of the literature supporting this? I want to ensure I don't
overlook important studies as I get ready to send my new book to my publisher
(phytomedicine and CAM are only a peripheral topics, but of course I want to
cite the best studies).

thanks and this is a great discussion group even if I rarely have had time to
post things lately.

Edward C Green

Dear Edward Green
I have written a book on phytomedicals and Hiv (Medicinal Plants and
Hiv, Techniche nuove, Milano, 360 pp), unfortunatly in italian (not
english). But you could consult the biblyography. It is not very recent
(1997) but any study published on herbal products until this date is
cited. Please, send me your address and I will send you a copy.


Whit this opportunty I would be very interested in to know your work on
it. My organization is still working and supporting projects on
integration of traditional and conventional medicine and HIV prevention.

Antonio Bianchi
COE Traditional Medicine
via Lazzaroni 8
20124 Milano
tel +39 02 66712077
fax 02 66714338


EGreendc@aol.com wrote:

Dear Antonio Bianchi

My address is below. I am on the board of the Journal of Alt. and
Complementary Medicine, and my last book (and the two earlier ones) are on
African indigenous healers (Green, E.C., Indigenous Theories of Contagious
Disease. Walnut Creek, Ca.: Altamira Press & London: Sage Press, 1999.)

I have taken some time off from ethnomedicine to address AIDS and behavior:

The New York Times March 1, 2003
A Plan as Simple as ABC
By EDWARD C. GREEN

AMBRIDGE, Mass.
There have been suggestions that President Bush was able to promise $10
billion in new money to fight the AIDS pandemic in part because there is now
a way to spend the prevention part of this sum (about half) in a way that is
acceptable to conservatives. It's true that conservatives favor this
approach, but that doesn't mean it doesn't work.

The initiative is based on what is called the "ABC approach." People might
well wonder what this model is and what evidence supports it. Here is a
summary of Uganda's experience.

We now know that the rate of new H.I.V. infections in Uganda started to
decline in the late 1980's. But foreign experts began showing up in force in
Uganda only in the early 1990's. Moreover, there were very few condoms in
Uganda when the epidemic began to slow; they became widely available only
after the experts appeared. Weren't "we" supposed to teach "them" how to
prevent AIDS?

What happened was that beginning in 1986, Uganda tried to bring about nothing
less than fundamental change in sexual behavior. It developed a low-cost
program whose message, delivered by everyone from President Yoweri Museveni
on down, was this: Stop having multiple partners. Be faithful. Teenagers,
wait until you are married before you begin sex.

This is what has become known as the ABC model: Abstain, Be faithful, use
Condoms if A and B fail.

By 1995, according to a survey financed by the United States, 95 percent of
Ugandans were reporting either one or zero sexual partners in the past year.
Moreover, the proportion of sexually active youth declined significantly from
the late 80's to the mid-90's. The greatest percentage decline in H.I.V.
infections and the greatest degree of behavioral change occurred in those 15
to 19 years old. This was also the group with the fewest AIDS deaths —
showing that it was most likely behavior and not death rates that reduced
infection rates.

Though only 8 percent of Ugandans aged 15 to 49 reported using condoms
recently — this according to the 2000 Demographic and Health Survey, which is
conducted for the United States Agency for International Development — the
important thing is that those 8 percent engaged in practices that put them at
the highest risk of H.I.V. infection.

Why wasn't condom use more of a factor in Uganda's success in fighting AIDS?
Partly it was Mr. Museveni's skepticism that in a country where it was
difficult even to find aspirin, condoms could be supplied in adequate
numbers. So the priority in the ABC approach is on A and B. Elsewhere,
prevention typically begins and ends with C, in practice if not design.

But because the ABC approach is starting to be embraced by conservatives in
the United States, some AIDS groups have been reluctant to believe it could
be effective. Too often I've started to explain how the Ugandan H.I.V. rate
began to drop after people started having fewer sexual partners, only to be
met with a look of suspicion or condescension and informed that abstinence
doesn't work.

Yet, when Africans are asked how they have changed their behavior in the face
of AIDS, the great majority don't talk a lot about condoms. They talk about
becoming monogamous, says a 2002 United Nations study that summarized years
of research. Furthermore, young people report waiting until they are older to
begin sex.

The ABC approach is not about that great conversation-stopper, "abstinence
only." It is about providing people with more options for preventing AIDS.
Some people cannot or will not change their behavior, and so of course they
need to use condoms. But while condom use was one of the options Uganda has
promoted, faithfulness to one partner is probably the major contributor to
the country's success. We need to develop a balanced approach by recognizing
that Africa and the West have different types of epidemics and going beyond
the fruitless battle between the abstinence and condom camps.

Edward C. Green, a medical anthropologist at the Harvard School of Public
Health, is author of the forthcoming "Rethinking AIDS Prevention."


Edward C Green, Ph.D.
Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies
9 Bow Street
Cambridge, MA 02138

Phone: 617 495 3014
Fax: 617 495 5418

egreen@hsph.harvard.edu,
egreendc@aol.com


Medicinal Plants: Local Heritage with Global Importance

Fostering health by old means and new, the World Bank is supporting projects to help the people of South Asia make the best of a precious natural resource: plants used in traditional medicines and modern pharmaceuticals. As a result of these efforts, communities throughout the region are beginning to conserve and sustainably harvest plants that have provided remedies for hundreds of years and that yield ingredients for some of the most advanced medications available today. This undertaking affects more than the South Asian region because plants used for both kinds of medicines are exported to countries all over the world.

A Tradition of Natural Remedies

More than 80 percent of the people in South Asia rely on herbal remedies as a principal means of preventing and curing illnesses, and several traditional medical systems are based on the use of plants. There are several advantages to such systems: the plants involved are readily available, are easy to transport, and do not spoil quickly. Remedies based on these plants often have minimal side effects, and the relatively high cost of synthetic medicines in developing countries often makes traditional herbal medicines an affordable choice for the poor in these lands. The Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions, a nongovernmental organization (NGO) dedicated to conservation of medicinal plants and a renewed appreciation of India's traditional health systems, describes India's rich plant-based medical heritage in these words:

India's traditional medical systems are part of a time-honoured and time-tested culture that still intrigues people today. A culture that has successfully used nature to treat primary and complex ailments for over 3,000 years obviously has a contemporary relevance. In an age when toxic drugs are increasingly unwelcome and when thinking people are using viable alternatives, India's medical heritage must be documented, saved and used.

A Rising Demand

Medicinal and aromatic plants are important products found in forest areas throughout South Asia, from the plains to the high Himalayas, with the greatest concentration in the tropical and subtropical belts. India recognizes more than 2,500 plant species as having medicinal value, Sri Lanka about 1,400, and Nepal around 700. Some of these, found at high altitudes in particularly stressful environments, grow very slowly and cannot live elsewhere. Others are more broadly distributed and adapt more easily to different ecological conditions.

During the past decade, a dramatic increase in exports of medicinal plants attests to worldwide interest in these products as well as in traditional health systems. In the last 10 years, for example, India's exports of medicinal plants have trebled. But with most of these plants being taken from the wild, hundreds of species are now threatened with extinction because of overharvesting, destructive collection techniques, and conversion of habitats to crop-based agriculture. For instance, the small coniferous Himalayan yew (Taxus baccata) has recently become a heavily traded species. It is avidly sought because it contains taxol, used to treat ovarian cancer. Large quantities of this plant are collected and exported annually, although its harvesting is illegal in most South Asian countries.

Harvesting Too Much, Growing And Protecting Too Little

Open access to medicinal plants in the wild is perhaps one of the main reasons for the current unsustainable levels of harvesting. Other factors contributing to unsustainability include lack of sufficient data on wild plant populations, marketing, and trading; inadequate regulations and legal protection (including intellectual property rights for local practitioners with local knowledge); and poor access to appropriate technology for sound harvesting and plantation development.

Government support for and supervision of medicinal plant development are often weak. In some countries, public sector agencies exercise monopoly control over the purchasing and processing of such plants and other forest products, fostering inefficiencies, thwarting commercial development, and preventing fair pricing for collectors. But even when they maintain such controls, exporting nations generally reap low returns, since royalty payments and permit requirements are usually not enforced. In Nepal, for instance, less than 25 percent of the total medicinal plant trade is actually registered.

Nevertheless, attempts are now under way to cultivate some easily grown species and protect important natural habitats in order to reduce the pressure on these vital resources. Indeed, cultivation offers the best hope for conserving many medicinal plants found in the wild while maintaining harvested supplies at today's levels. Cultivation also permits better species identification, improved quality control, and increased prospects for genetic improvements. According to Alexander McCalla, director of the Agriculture and Natural Resources Department of the World Bank,

What looks like a problem actually provides numerous opportunities for developing nations to advance rural well-being. After all, medicinal plants are one of the few (legal) developing country natural products that sell at premium prices. Thus, the global clamor for more herbal ingredients creates possibilities for the local cultivation of medicinal crops as well as for the regulated and sustainable harvest of wild stands. Such endeavors could help raise rural employment in the developing countries, boost commerce around the world, and perhaps contribute to the health of millions.

If existing supplies of medicinal plants are to keep up with demand, they will need adequate protection through development of appropriate institutions, policies, and legislation. Local communities need support and encouragement to protect these resources. To complement cultivation of adaptable species, harvesting from the wild must be guided by accurate inventories and knowledge about the species concerned. Above all, overexploitation of rare and endangered species must be avoided.

World Bank Group Support

Through various lending and nonlending initiatives, the World Bank is assisting the countries of South Asia to address these needs. Some of these efforts are described below.

The Kerala Forestry Project. The conservation of medicinal plants is a key objective of biodiversity conservation components in several forestry projects in India being assisted by the International Development Association (IDA), the World Bank's concessionary lending arm. The Kerala Forestry Project, recently approved by IDA's board, is supporting a pilot program that involves tribal and other forest-dependent communities in the inventory, conservation, and sustainable development of medicinal plants. The four-year project, expected to cost US$47.0 million, is being financed with a US$39.0 million IDA credit and contributions totaling US$8.0 million from the state of Kerala and project beneficiaries. Project activities related to medicinal plants will cost US$0.2 million, or 0.4 percent of the total.

The project supports technological improvements for artificial propagation of endangered plant species; research and training in better harvesting and processing techniques; community management of plant propagation, harvesting, and marketing; analysis of marketing policies; establishment of community-managed, forest-based enterprises for income generation; and monitoring and evaluation of the status of these natural resources with the assistance of local communities. This pilot program will be implemented initially in five villages that are economically highly dependent on medicinal plants. The Kerala Forest Department and the Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute have formed a partnership to design and implement the program. The institute will take the lead in providing the technical expertise for taking plant inventories, developing processing techniques, and designing marketing strategies, and the department will help form community groups. While relatively modest, this program holds real promise of enhancing the sustainable management of the medicinal plant resources of Kerala in a way that will enable local communities to reap the economic benefits of these resources without depleting the forests and endangered plant species.

The Sri Lanka Medicinal Plants Project. This project is the first approved by the World Bank that is focused exclusively on the conservation and sustainable management of medicinal plants. To be implemented between 1998 and 2002, the project is estimated to cost US$5.07 million. It is being financed by a grant of US$4.57 million from the Global Environment Facility Trust Fund and a contribution of US$0.5 million from the government of Sri Lanka. 1 The World Bank is the implementing agency for the fund. The objectives of the project are to conserve important medicinal plants, their habitats, and genetic stock while promoting sustainable use. These goals will be achieved through three initiatives to:

o Establish five medicinal plant conservation areas where plant collection from the wild is particularly intensive and develop a conservation strategy for each; implement village action plans to reduce dependency on harvesting from the wild; collect basic socioeconomic and botanical data; and promote extension and education on medicinal properties of species within these conservation areas

o Increase nursery capacity to develop the cultivation potential of select species and support research on propagation and field planting techniques
o Collect and organize existing information on plant species and their use and promote an appropriate legal framework through production of draft regulations to ensure the protection of intellectual property rights.

Ritigala Community Based Development and Environment Management Foundation
A medicinal plant nursery in Sri Lanka: gearing up to satisfy a burgeoning demand.

This project is expected to yield important environmental and social benefits. It will help conserve more than 1,400 medicinal plant species used in Sri Lanka, of which 189 are found only there and at least 79 are threatened. It will spread knowledge about sustainable growth, crop yields, biological cycles, and the danger of depleting plant resources; maintain critical habitats for medicinal plants; and increase the diversity and quantity of threatened species. The project will also preserve indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants and their use, promote policy and legal reforms, involve tribal people and local communities in efforts to reduce dependency on wild resources, and generate alternative income opportunities for the rural population. From a national perspective, the project will increase supplies of raw materials for traditional medicines, improve the availability and management of information, and promote human resource development in medicinal plant-related fields.

Sector work in Nepal. International trade in medicinal plants both within South Asian countries and with East Asia, Europe, and North America is growing in economic importance. More than 90 percent of the medicinal plants exported from Nepal go to India, earning an estimated US$8.6 million annually. To evaluate how medicinal plants and other forest products influence local, national, and international economies, the government of Nepal and the Bank are collaborating in a study of forest resource management and its impact on Nepal's ecology and economy. The study is exploring the underlying causes of medicinal plant overexploitation and unsustainable management. Other goals are to identify actions needed to encourage sustainable management of medicinal plants that will help conserve biodiversity and to propose legal, policy, economic, social, technical, and institutional initiatives to mitigate overexploitation. This study is part of the World Bank's Global Overlays Program, in which the Nepal study will serve as a country case for examining ways of introducing biodiversity conservation into natural resource management.

The India Capacity Building for Food and Drugs Quality Control Project. In addition to supporting initiatives to conserve medicinal plants and ensure their sustainable use, the Bank advocates complementary actions to increase the capacities of its client countries to safeguard the quality of drugs, including plant-based remedies. India is currently preparing a project for possible IDA financing with a broad array of activities to improve the safety of conventional drugs and traditional remedies and prevent food adulteration. 3 This project is expected to include a comprehensive survey of medicinal plants in the north-western state of Himachal Pradesh and establish a center for quality control and improvement of herbal drugs. In addition, the project will upgrade pharmaceutical standards and quality control in India by improving federal laboratories that test medicinal plants and set standards for remedies used in traditional medical systems. This project should boost consumer protection through higher quality standards for both traditional remedies and modern drugs.

A Strategy for the Future

Although the Bank has supported some pioneering work in the South Asia region related to medicinal plants and, more generally, natural resource management, much remains to be done. In the future, it will be important to mainstream medicinal plants and other nontimber forest products into natural resource management and development programs. To boost the quality of plant resource management and increase supplies of these resources:

- Agricultural support agencies should strengthen extension efforts to farmers.
- Research institutions need to improve basic knowledge about cultivation practices and dissemination of plant species.
- Conservation agencies and NGOs should promote conservation of vulnerable species at the grass-roots level.
- Community organizations need to adopt sustainable collection and management practices on public lands.
- Profitable private enterprises for processing, transporting, and marketing must be developed.
- Government institutions need to be strengthened to regulate these important resources and, at the same time, foster their sustainable development and conservation.
- Future initiatives should also link the management and conservation of medicinal plants (and other nontimber forest products) with the commercial development of these resources. In this spirit, every new forestry project should be designed to have a significant effect on the sustained use of nontimber forest products. Management and conservation must be integrated with programs in other sectors: in health, to foster better use of plant materials; in education, to build awareness of the need for protection and judicious development; and in agriculture, to strengthen farmer extension methods for plant cultivation.

The Bank's new lending instruments - learning and innovation loans and adaptable program loans - are well suited to these efforts. They can allow for project design flexibility to incorporate lessons learned, encourage institutional reforms, and, where appropriate, foster pilot exercises to test new approaches. With the commitment of governments, local communities, and NGOs, coupled with international support, the medicinal plant resources of South Asia have a chance of surviving, thriving, and continuing to aid billions of people.

-----------------------------------------

1. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) provides grant and concessional funds to developing countries and those with economies in transition for projects and activities that address four aspects of the global environment: biological diversity, climate change, international waters, and the ozone layer. Activities related to land degradation, primarily those addressing deforestation and desertification as they relate to the focal areas, are also eligible for funding. Along with the United Nations Development Programme and the United Nations Environment Programme, the World Bank is an implementing agency for the GEF.

2. Launched in 1995, the Global Overlays Program adds a global dimension to the traditional work that the Bank undertakes collaboratively with its client countries. The program is designed to help countries adjust their policies to integrate global externalities into their national economic planning.

3. This proposed operation is being managed by the Health, Population, and Nutrition Sector Unit of the Bank's South Asia Region.

This brief was prepared by William Nickel and Ethel Sennhauser.

For more information, please contact:

In India: Geetanjali Chopra, Phone: (91-11) 461-7241, E-mail: gchopra@worldbank.org
Reply



Medicinal plants: a re-emerging health aid

Lucy Hoareau
Assistant Programme Officer, Division of Life Sciences UNESCO
1 Rue Miollis, Paris, France 75015
E-mail : l.hoareau@unesco.org



Edgar J. DaSilva *
Director, Division of Life Sciences UNESCO
1 Rue Miollis, Paris, France 75015
E-mail : e.dasilva@unesco.org

* Corresponding author

Keywords : International cooperation, Medicinal plants, Traditional medicine.
Open Discussion

Interest in medicinal plants as a re-emerging health aid has been fuelled by the rising costs of prescription drugs in the maintenance of personal health and well-being, and the bioprospecting of new plant-derived drugs. Several issues as well as a range of interests and activities in a number of countries are dealt with. Based on current research and financial investments, medicinal plants will, seemingly, continue to play an important role as an health aid.

Medicinal plants, since times immemorial, have been used in virtually all cultures as a source of medicine. The widespread use of herbal remedies and healthcare preparations, as those described in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Bible, and obtained from commonly used traditional herbs and medicinal plants, has been traced to the occurrence of natural products with medicinal properties.

The use of traditional medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries, as a normative basis for the maintenance of good health, has been widely observed (UNESCO, 1996). Furthermore, an increasing reliance on the use of medicinal plants in the industrialised societies has been traced to the extraction and development of several drugs and chemotherapeutics from these plants as well as from traditionally used rural herbal remedies (UNESCO, 1998). Moreover, in these societies, herbal remedies have become more popular in the treatment of minor ailments, and also on account of the increasing costs of personal health maintenance. Indeed, the market and public demand has been so great that there is a great risk that many medicinal plants today, face either extinction or loss of genetic diversity.

Background

Medicine, in several developing countries, using local traditions and beliefs, is still the mainstay of health care. As defined by WHO, health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

The practise of traditional medicine is widespread in China, India, Japan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand. In China about 40% of the total medicinal consumption is attributed to traditional tribal medicines. In Thailand, herbal medicines make use of legumes encountered in the Caesalpiniaceae, the Fabaceae, and the Mimosaceae. In the mid-90s, it is estimated that receipts of more than US$2.5 billion have resulted from the sales of herbal medicines. And, in Japan, herbal medicinal preparations are more in demand than mainstream pharmaceutical products.

Africa is a rich source of medicinal plants. Perhaps, the best known species is Phytolacca dodecandra. Extracts of the plant, commonly known as endod, are used as an effective molluscicide to control schistosomiasis (Lemma, 1991). Other notable examples are Catharanthus roseus, which yields anti-tumour agents such as vinblastine and vincristine; and Ricinus communis, which yields the laxative--castor oil. In Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa, Harpagophytum procumbens is produced as a crude drug for export. Similarly, Hibiscus sabdariffa is exported from Sudan and Egypt. Other exports are Pausinystalia yohimbe from Cameroon, Nigeria and Rwanda, which yields yohimbine; and Rauwolfia vomitoria, from Madagascar, Mozambique and Zaire, which is exploited to yield reserpine and ajmaline.

The use of medicinal plants like Eupatorium perfoliatum (bonest), Podophyllum peltatum (mayapple), and Panax quinquefolium (ginseng) in the USA has long been associated with the American Indians. These plants have also been appreciated and recognised for their aesthetic and ornamental value. In Central America medicinal plants have been widely used - by the Maya Indians in Mexico, the Miskitos and Sumus in Honduras and Nicaragua, the Pech, Lencas, and Xicaques in Honduras, the Pipiles in El Salvador, the Talamancas in Costa Rica, and the Guaymis and Kunas in Panama.

In Europe, some 1500 species of medicinal and aromatic plants are widely used in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. The Maltese islands constitute an apt example where medicinal plants are widely used in every day life as part of folk medicinal remedies (Lanfranco, 1992).

Issues

Traditional and folklore medicine bequeathed from generation to generation is rich in domestic recipes and communal practice. Encompassing concepts and methods for the protection and restoration of health, traditional medicine has served as a fount of alternative medicine, new pharmaceuticals, and healthcare products. The best known examples of traditional medicine, differing in concept and protocol, are well-developed systems such as acupuncture and ayurvedic medicine that have been widely used to conserve human health in China and India.

Developed countries, in recent times, are turning to the use of traditional medicinal systems that involve the use of herbal drugs and remedies. About 1400 herbal preparations are used widely, according to a recent survey in Member States of the European Union. Herbal preparations are popular and are of significance in primary healthcare in Belgium, France, Germany and the Netherlands. Such popularity of healthcare plant-derived products has been traced to their increasing acceptance and use in the cosmetic industry as well as to increasing public costs in the daily maintenance of personal health and well being. Examples of such beauty-oriented therapeuticals are skin tissue regenerators, anti-wrinkling agents and anti-age creams. Most dermaceuticals are derived from algal extracts that are rich in minerals and the vitamin B group. Skincare products such as skin creams, skin tonics, etc. derived from medicinal plants are grouped together as dermaceuticals.

Also, amongst the poor, cures and drugs, derived from plants, constitute the main source of healthcare products.

Gorman (1992) drew attention to the power of Chinese folk medicinal potions in treating maladies from eczema and malaria to respiratory disorders. In the quest for new medicines to treat old and emergent diseases such as malaria and AIDS, attention is now being given to discovering the active ingredients encountered in the treasury of over 5,000 Chinese herbs, plants and roots that have been used routinely and traditionally. Quinghaosu and Chaihu are two such examples. Whereas the former, called artemisinin and obtained from Artemisia annua is expected to yield, in the coming millennium, a potent new class of antimalarials, the latter, obtained from Bupleurum chinense and used as a popular remedy for hepatitis is the focus of intense research by the Japanese pharmaceutical industry. More recently, the biochemistry of tianhuafen or cucumber is being studied in the USA to decipher the identity of compound Q, an extract used in China and credited with remedial and relief properties in AIDS sufferers.

Medicinal plants are an integral component of ethnoveterinary medicine. Farmers and pastoralists in several countries use medicinal plants in the maintenance and conservation of the healthcare of livestock. Intestinal disorders in cows, in Mexico, are treated with herbal extracts of Polakowskia tacacco. Dietary supplements such as vitamin A in poultry feeds in Uganda are supplied through enrichments of amaranth (Amaranthus sp.). It is estimated that medicinal plants, for several centuries, have been widely used as a primary source of prevention and control of livestock diseases. In fact, interest of such use in the veterinary sector has resulted primarily from the increasing cost of livestock maintenance and the introduction of new technology in the production of veterinary medicines and vaccines.

McGee (1998), surveying the use of spice and their medicinal properties around the world, concluded that spices serve the adaptive purpose of reducing food-borne disease. In reviewing relevant texts ranging from the preservative properties of spices against food spoilage to the presence of antimicrobial substances that lay claim to the elimination of pathogenic organisms in food preparations, the case is made for a more objective analysis and study of the medicinal properties of spices in victu rather than in victo. A whole range of plant-derived dietary supplements, phytochemicals and pro-vitamins that assist in maintaining good health and combating disease are now being described as functional foods, nutriceuticals and nutraceuticals. Table 1 provides some examples of national activities concerning medicinal plants in several developed and developing countries.

Despite the increasing use of medicinal plants, their future, seemingly, is being threatened by complacency concerning their conservation. Reserves of herbs and stocks of medicinal plants in developing countries are diminishing and in danger of extinction as a result of growing trade demands for cheaper healthcare products and new plant-based therapeutic markets in preference to more expensive target-specific drugs and biopharmaceuticals. Such concerns have stimulated positive legal and economic interest.

Issues concerning intellectual property rights, compensation for loss of finance-rich biodiversity resources, and the acquisition and safeguarding of traditional healthcare knowledge are no longer neglected. Bioprospecting of new drugs from medicinal plants and the exploitation of unprotected traditional knowledge in starting-up potentially new bioindustries are the focus of new monitoring measures. Such concerns that call for adherence to and observation of cultural and intellectual property rights have been addressed and enshrined in the Chiang-Mai and Kari-Oca Declarations (Table 2). The first countries to seriously tackle these issues are China and India. Indeed, programmes dealing with medicinal plant conservation, cultivation, community involvement and sustainable development being initiated elsewhere, could benefit immensely from the Chinese and Indian experiences (World Bank, 1997).

Genetic biodiversity of traditional medicinal herbs and plants is continuously under the threat of extinction as a result of growth-exploitation, environment-unfriendly harvesting techniques, loss of growth habitats and unmonitored trade of medicinal plants.

Medicinal herbs, possessing penile potency properties and anti-cancer principles are the focus of smuggling to import markets in Germany, France, Switzerland, Japan, the U.K., and the U.S.A. The best known example, in recent times, is that of tetu lakda (Nothadoytes foetida). Commonly encountered in southern India and Sri Lanka, the herb is exploited as a source of anti-cancer drugs.

On the other hand, Adonis vernalis, extinct in Italy and the Netherlands, is an endangered species in Germany, Slovakia, Sweden and Switzerland. Fortunately, to safeguard against such practices and losses, guidelines and licensing concerning the use of such plants are provided for in the Convention on International Trade Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES).

The industrial uses of medicinal plants are many. These range from traditional medicines, herbal teas, and health foods such as nutriceuticals to galenicals, phytopharmaceuticals and industrially produced pharmaceuticals. Furthermore, medicinal plants constitute a source of valuable foreign exchange for most developing countries, as they are a ready source of drugs such as quinine and reserpine; of galenicals like tinctures and of intermediates (e.g. diosgenin from Discorea sp.) in the production of semi-synthetic drugs.

The world market for plant-derived chemicals - pharmaceuticals, fragrances, flavours, and colour ingredients, alone exceeds several billion dollars per year. Classic examples of phytochemicals in biology and medicine include taxol, vincristine, vinblastine, colchicine as well as the Chinese antimalarial - artemisinin, and the Indian ayurdevic drug-forkolin. Trade in medicinal plants is growing in volume and in exports. It is estimated that the global trade in medicinal plants is US$800 million per year.

The botanical market, inclusive of herbs and medicinal plants, in the USA, is estimated, at retail, at approximately US$1.6 billion p.a. China with exports of over 120,000 tonnes p.a., and India with some 32,000 tonnes p.a. dominate the international markets. It is estimated that Europe, annually, imports about 400,000 t of medicinal plants with an average market value of US$ 1 billion from Africa and Asia. A growing awareness of this new contributor to the foreign-exchange reserves of several national treasuries is beginning to emerge. To satisfy growing market demands, surveys are being conducted to unearth new plant sources of herbal remedies and medicines.

In several industrialised societies, plant-derived prescription drugs constitute an element in the maintenance of health. Medicinal plants are an integral component of research developments in the pharmaceutical industry. Such research focuses on the isolation and direct use of active medicinal constituents, or on the development of semi-synthetic drugs, or still again on the active screening of natural products to yield synthetic pharmacologically-active compounds. In Germany, for example, over 1500 plant species encountered in some 200 families and 800 genera have been processed into medicinal products. In South Africa, likewise, some 500 species are commercialised trade products. Today, Bulgaria, Germany and Poland are recognised as major exporters of plant-based medicinal products.

The development and commercialisation of medicinal plant-based bioindustries in the developing countries is dependent upon the availability of facilities and information concerning upstream and downstream bioprocessing, extraction, purification, and marketing of the industrial potential of medicinal plants. Absence of such infrastructure compounded by lack of governmental interest and financial support restricts the evolution of traditional herbal extracts into authenticated market products. Furthermore the absence of modernised socio-economic and public healthcare systems reinforces reliance of rural and lower-income urban populations on the use of traditional medicinal herbs and plants as complementary aids to routine pharmaceutical market products.

The prophylactic and therapeutic effects of plant foods and extracts in reducing cardiovascular disease has been reviewed (Walker, 1996). Non-nutrient phytochemicals are increasingly being recognised as potential health promoters in reducing the risks of cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis. Prominent herbs identified were Achillea millefolium (yarrow), Allium sativum (garlic), Convallaria majalis (lily of the valley), Cratageus laevigata (hawthorn), Cynara scolymus (globe artichoke), Gingko biloba (gingko) and Viburnum opulus (cramp bark).

Saint-John's wort known as Johanniskrant in German for centuries has been used to treat people with mild and moderate depression without the side effects of Prozac. Widely sold in Germany and other European countries, and awaiting official approval by the US Food and Drug Administration, Saint-John's wort is being regarded as a serious rival to Prozac (Andrews, 1997 ).

Medicinal plants can make an important contribution to the WHO goal to ensure, by the year 2000, that all peoples, worldwide, will lead a sustainable socio-economic productive life. The Centre for Science and Technology of the Non-Aligned and other Developing Countries in India organised an international workshop on Tissue Culture of Economic Plants in April, 1994, as a means of using modern biotechnological techniques to nurture and conserve medicinal plants.

In late 1997, the World Bank, within the framework of the Global Environmental Facility, provided a US$ 4.5 million grant for the Sri Lanka Conservation of Medicinal Plants Project which focuses on the conservation of medicinal plant populations, their habitats, and their sustainable use in Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs). Inventories with emphasis on the management, research and conservation of rare and endangered species of medicinal plants are the main programmes at MPCAs at Ritigala, Naula, Rajawaka, Kanneliya, and Bibile.

Aspects of policy and research concerning the cultivation of non-tropical and tropical medicinal plants and their genetic improvement; their conservation in botanical gardens; their storage in liquid nitrogen; their economic potential in international pharmaceutical trade; and their vulnerability to over-exploitation and extinction have been dealt with authoritatively (Akerele et al, 1991; Chadwick and Marsh, 1994). Moreover, such concerns and issues are addressed through a variety of programme activities and projects conducted, and promoted by several international, regional, and non-governmental organisations ( Table 3).

Concluding remarks

Recent and renewed interest in medicinal plants coupled to developments in information technology has fuelled an explosion in the range and content of electronic information concerning medicinal plants as a re-emergent health aid. Bhat (1997) recently reviewed diverse sources of such information in traditional abstracting services as well as in a variety of online electronic databases. As a result of such developments, access to indigenous peoples and cultures concerning medicinal plants are greatly facilitated. Furthermore, the active participation of such natural custodians and practitioners of valuable knowledge is guaranteed in the generation of research focussing on screening programmes dealing with the isolation of bioactive principles and the development of new drugs.

References

Akerele, O., Heywood, V. and Synge, H. (1991). eds., Conservation of Medicinal Plants, Cambridge University Press Ltd., Cambridge, UK, pgs. 362.

Andrews, E.L. (1997). A Humble Herb as Rival to Prozac, International Herald Tribune,Paris

11 November.

Anjara, J. (1996) Ethnoveterinary Pharmacology in India: Past, Present and Future. In: Ethnoveterinary Research and Development. eds. McCorkle, C.M., Mathias, E. and Schillhorn van veen, T.W., Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK, pgs. 137 - 147.

Bhat, K.K.S. (1997). Medicinal and plant information databases. In: Medicinal Plants for Forests Conservation and Health Care. eds. Bodeker, G. and Vantomne, P., FAO, Non-Wood Forest Products Series No. 11, FAO, Rome, pgs. 158.

Chadwick, D.J. and Marsh, J. (1994). eds. Ethnobotany and the Search for New Drugs, CIBA Foundation Symposium 185, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, pgs. 280.

Gorman, C. (1992). The Power of Potions, Time, April 20, pgs. 52 - 53.

Lanfranco, G. (1992). Popular Use of Medicinal Plants in the Maltese Islands, Insula, No. 1, pgs. 34 - 35.

Lemma, A. (1991). The Potentials and Challenges of Endod, the Ethiopian Soapberry Plant for Control of Schistosomiasis. In: Science in Africa: Achievements and Prospects, American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS), Washington, D.C., USA.

McGee, H. (1988). In victu veritas, Nature 392:649 - 650.

UNESCO (1996). Culture and Health, Orientation Texts - World Decade for Cultural Development 1988 - 1997, Document CLT/DEC/PRO - 1996, Paris, France, pgs. 129.

UNESCO (1998). FIT/504-RAF-48 Terminal Report: Promotion of Ethnobotany and the Sustainable Use of Plant Resources in Africa, pgs. 60, Paris, 1998.

Walker, A.F. (1996). Of Hearts and Herbs, Biologist 43:177 - 180.

World Bank (1997). Medicinal Plants - Rescuing a Global Heritage. eds. Lambert, J., Srivastava, J. and Vietmeyer, N., Technical Paper No. 355, pgs. 61.
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Folks!


> http://panda.org/news_facts/newsroom/other_news/news.cfm?uNewsID=6161
> None of more than 30,000 species shielded by international laws
> against trading wild animals and plants has become extinct since the
> legislation came into force 30 years ago this week.


I'm confused. Where do the oft-quoted stats come from that every few
minutes or hours or days a specie becomes extinct somewhere around
the world? If the 30,000 threatened species that are monitored did
not become extinct, how can anyone be sure that non-monitored species
were going extinct at some alarming rate? And why weren't they put
on the list?

Ciao!

Franko
--

Frank Muller

Director: Integrow Health (Pty) Ltd
PO Box 4075, George East, 6539, South Africa
Tel: [+27] (0)44-874 1715
Cell: [+27] (0)83-300 1073
Fax: [+27] (0)44-874 1716
Email: frank.muller@integrow.co.za

Success means having better problems.
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Biodiversity and Conservation of Medicinal Plants

In the present times, total protection of areas, small or big, requires heavy financial inputs. Such protection will also defeat the objective of utilisation of natural resources for human welfare. Total protection of an area to prevent biodiversity loss is both impossible and impracticable. It is also not feasible in the long run to preserve the whole of biodiversity in botanical/zoological gardens, green houses, etc., (Tewari, 1993). No matter what we do, natural and time dependent changes in biodiversity are inevitable.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Conservation is the planned management of natural resources, to retain the natural balance, diversity and evolutionary change in the environment (Lincoln et al., 1982). It is a protective measure taken a) to prevent the loss of genetic diversity of a species, b) to save a species from becoming extinct, and c) to protect an ecosystem from damage so as to promote its sustained utilisation.

The aims and objectives of biodiversity/species conservation programmes are:
a) to promote conservation of biodiversity in defined habitats and geographical areas;
b) to identify components of biodiversity in a region for conservation and sustainable use;
c) to promote in situ (explained later) conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems, natural habitats and species populations;
d) to establish and formulate strategies for ex situ (explained later) conservation for the components of biodiversity through an integrated scientific research;
e) to study the intrinsic and extrinsic factors causing the depletion of species/populations and to formulate and adopt scientifically oriented conservation strategies;
f) to identify Biodiversity Conservation Regions and 'hotspot' areas (that require urgent measures) in the world for concentrated research and protection;
g) to promote research in traditional and ethic knowledge areas on, and utilisation of, natural resources, and to encourage equitable sharing of benefits arising out of utilisation of such knowledge systems;
h) to promote research on wild relatives, land races and cultivars of cultivated species;
i) to maintain database systems on economically important groups of plant and animal species as a source information on them;
j) to evolve guidelines for the management of protected areas so as to enable the policy makers and managers to take effective measures to conserve biodiversity and species; and
k) to disseminate information on the importance of conservation and sustainable utilisation of biodiversity, through popular and scientific publications and other educational programmes.

Since the criteria and action plans differ very widely, often within a particular country, depending upon the needs of a specific situation, no uniform approach is practicable. Biological conservation has its own impacts on environment and the society, which need to be addressed carefully before any programme is implemented (Balakrishna, 1999).

MEASURES FOR CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
It is essential that biodiversity, particularly in the tropical regions of the world, is conserved taking urgent steps. Economic gains, immediate or long range, concerning individuals, organisations or governments are one of the important factors in biodiversity conservation priorities. Politics follow potential economic gains. Countries which have the diversity would like to gain by their natural resources. Countries which lack in an appreciable and/or profitable biodiversity component, want to benefit from the biodiversity of other countries without payment, or with payment of minimal costs. The fact that most wars were fought for natural resources and/or trade in them, should be kept in mind.

In the absence of definitive knowledge to determine the component of biodiversity that has to be conserved and of plans and machinery to effect it, the only sensible option is to monitor a reasonable protection to the existing biodiversity, till such time that priorities are determined and an action plan emerges.

SUSTAINABLE USE OF BIODIVERSITY
An often suggested alternative to development or conservation options, is sustainable use of biodiversity, which is hoped to provide for a balanced utilisation and conservation of biodiversity. Sustainable utilisation has not fully satisfied either the developmentalists or the conservationists. In addition, the economics vary according to the climate, soil conditions, topography, infrastructure (Pearce and Moran, 1994), and the biological component harboured in the area. Consequently, no universal criteria are available for sustainable use of biodiversity.

RED LISTS OF THREATENED PLANTS
The IUCN separately publishes Red Lists of Threatened Animals and Plants to publicise information on the conservation status of species.

The Red Lists are the most comprehensive and authoritative global surveys of threatened species in existence. They identify taxa that are most threatened, thereby serving as tools to help to set priorities for conservation action and providing baseline information for monitoring status of taxa. The Red Lists provide a framework for more specific information about taxa under threat-such as national or regional lists and conservation strategies-and alert regions, nations, and communities to taxa of international conservation concern. The Red Lists are the technical resource to international legal instruments and are frequently used to create and strengthen national species protection Laws. Periodical revisions of these lists are issued from time to time.

The latest version of the Red List of Threatened Animals has been released in 1996 and another version is due in 1999.

The first ever IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants of 1997, containing 33,798 species names the threatened category, was released in April 1998, simultaneously from Washington, London, Canberra and Cape Town (Sowdowski, 1998). The listed species belong to 369 plant families and 200 countries. They constitute 12.5 per cent of known species of vascular plants. The publication of this list is a turning point in plant conservation.

RED DATA BOOKS
Red Data Books of the IUCN provide in-depth analyses of the conservation status of particular groups of species. Earlier, Red Data Books cited 60,000 plant species as endangered. Certain situations of species make categorisation of their conservation status difficult. For example, the African Violets (Saintpaulia ionantha) are the most popular house plants throughout the world. But, a few years ago, an expedition found only three individuals in its wild habitat in Tanzania (Donellan, 1995). The species is certainly endangered in the wild but is abundant in cultivation. Similarly, the Indian Asoka tree (Saraca asoca) has definitely become rare in the wild but is a common avenue tree in many places in the country. Often, a distinction needs to be made between taxa that are threatened only in the wild habitats and those which are at total risk. Some species, such as Tribulus terrestris, which are under threat in one locality may be abundant in another.

Like several other countries in the world, Red Data Books have been published from India. Unfortunately, for plants the lists of threatened species have been based on the records of herbarium specimens of the concerned species, found in different herbaria in the country. This is an unscientific criterion as often the most abundant species comes to be sparsely represented in herbaria. The Indian Red Data Books have generally become suspect and questioned in International fora, as they were not based on valid criteria. Consequently we need to revise the Red Data Books of Plants in India on scientific methods. This work is now being carried out at the Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre associated with the WWF-India, at New Delhi.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY AS A MORAL ISSUE
Economic values play an important role in shaping most arguments in favour of conservation of biodiversity in different forms and approaches or in favour of development at the cost of biodiversity. An argument that conservation is a moral issue to be determined by a) the 'rights' of the other species in the ecosystems, b) the rights of indigenous people and minorities, and c) by our moral obligations to future generations in handing over the rich natural resource wealth as intact as possible, is often advanced. This implies that the conservation of biodiversity is an end in itself (Pearce and Moran, 1994) rather than the means to another end. In a number of situations, the moral view is not really opposed to the economic view. But often the confusion between the objectives of conservation vs development puts the governments in opposition to the environmentalists. Since conservation just for that sake is both scientifically impossible and impracticable, a better education, discussion and understanding of the issues involved in individual situations is the best means to avoid meaningless conflicts that result in a wastage of time. Timely action is the most basic approach to the problems. Gupta (1999), Sinha and Sahai (1999) and Jayal (1999) have discussed the ethical issues related to biodiversity and its conservation, in a greater detail.

CONSERVATION OF PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA

It was estimated that there are about 1,25,000 species of all organisms in India and about 4,00,000 would probably discovered in the future (Gadgil, 1996). Of the 1,25,000 species, 85,000 are animals. There are about 18,000 species of angiosperms in the country. To this number, we have to add the species of algae, fungi, bryophytes, pteridophytes and gymnosperms, even if we exclude the bacteria. Obviously, the estimates of species numbers in India are on the far lower side. Thus, we do not have dependable estimates of the number of plant species in India. In addition, we are not certain as to what to conserve. Till all issues related to conservation are resolved, no meaningful conservation action is possible. Khoshoo (1996) reviewed the problems and prospects of conservation of biodiversity in India and proposed setting up of a National Biodiversity Conservation Board, which reflects the fluidity of the situation.

Species are assigned to different categories of threat basing on the degree of threat of extinction they face. Over a period of time a certain amount of confusion has crept in, in the use of the terms. The term Extinct has come to be used in a local context (instead of global) 'as the disappearance of a species from a given habitat or biota, not precluding subsequent recolonisation from elsewhere' (Lincoln et al., 1982). The terms 'Endangered' and 'Threatened' have come to used interchangeably, a confusion that appears to be very wide spread, as the London Zoo Authorities have accused even the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) and the Born Free Foundation (BFF) of such confusion (Donellan, 1995). Aware of this situation, the SSC has reviewed the terminology and published the IUCN Red List Categories, the use of which is mandatory (Anonymous, 1994). The Red List of Threatened Animals of 1996 is totally according to these guidelines. Species (or subspecific taxa) facing any threat of extinction should be assigned to one of the following categories on the basis of detailed and specific criteria, given by the IUCN (Anonymous, 1994), which needs to be consulted for details.

Evaluated

If adequate data are available:
a) Extinct (EX): when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual of the taxon has died.
b) Extinct in the Wild (EW): when a taxon is known only to survive in cultivation, well outside the past range.

Threatened
i) Critically Endangered (CR): when a taxon is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future.
ii) Endangered (EN): when a taxon is not critically endangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future.
iii) Vulnerable (VU): when a taxon is facing a high risk in the wild in the medium term future.

RED LISTS OF THREATENED PLANTS

The IUCN separately publishes Red Lists of Threatened Animals and Plants to publicise information on the conservation status of species.

The Red Lists are the most comprehensive and authoritative global surveys of threatened species in existence. They identify taxa that are most threatened, thereby serving as tools to help to set priorities for conservation action and providing baseline information for monitoring status of taxa. The Red Lists provide a framework for more specific information about taxa under threat�such as national or regional lists and conservation strategies�and alert regions, nations, and communities to taxa of international conservation concern. The Red Lists are the technical resource to international legal instruments and are frequently used to create and strengthen national species protection Laws. Periodical revisions of these lists are issued from time to time.

The latest version of the Red List of Threatened Animals has been released in 1996 and another version is due in 1999.

The first ever IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants of 1997, containing 33,798 species names the threatened category, was released in April 1998, simultaneously from Washington, London, Canberra and Cape Town (Sowdowski, 1998). The listed species belong to 369 plant families and 200 countries. They constitute 12.5 per cent of known species of vascular plants. The publication of this list is a turning point in plant conservation.

RED DATA BOOKS

Red Data Books of the IUCN provide in-depth analyses of the conservation status of particular groups of species. Earlier, Red Data Books cited 60,000 plant species as endangered. Certain situations of species make categorisation of their conservation status difficult. For example, the African Violets (Saintpaulia ionantha) are the most popular house plants throughout the world. But, a few years ago, an expedition found only three individuals in its wild habitat in Tanzania (Donellan, 1995). The species is certainly endangered in the wild but is abundant in cultivation. Similarly, the Indian Asoka tree (Saraca asoca) has definitely become rare in the wild but is a common avenue tree in many places in the country. Often, a distinction needs to be made between taxa that are threatened only in the wild habitats and those which are at total risk. Some species, such as Tribulus terrestris, which are under threat in one locality may be abundant in another.

Like several other countries in the world, Red Data Books have been published from India. Unfortunately, for plants the lists of threatened species have been based on the records of herbarium specimens of the concerned species, found in different herbaria in the country. This is an unscientific criterion as often the most abundant species comes to be sparsely represented in herbaria. The Indian Red Data Books have generally become suspect and questioned in International fora, as they were not based on valid criteria. Consequently we need to revise the Red Data Books of Plants in India on scientific methods. This work is now being carried out at the Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre associated with the WWF-India, at New Delhi.

More at:
http://www.indmedplants-kr.org/index.htm
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MEDICINAL PLANT RESEARCH PROVIDES VALUABLE INFORMATION
MANITOBA AGRICULTURE AND FOOD NEWS RELEASE
Information Services, Rm 29, Legislative Bldg.
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3C 0V8
****************************************************************************

MEDICINAL PLANT RESEARCH PROVIDES VALUABLE INFORMATION

A Covering New Ground research project is gathering agronomic and pest management information about medicinal herbs to help increase the potential for the substantial economic returns available to those seeking to enter the nutraceutical industry.

For the past four years, the research initiative has been working to close this information gap with data gathered from plots near Carman and Roblin. So far, the research has focused primarily on echinacea angustifolia, feverfew, valerian and milk thistle. However, a number of other species were included for adaptability and demonstration purposes.

"The best way to be successful is to do your homework and to understand marketing as well as what you are doing when it comes to growing," said Keith Beaulieu, greenhouse and alternative crops specialist with Manitoba Agriculture and Food in Carman.

"Our research will provide valuable data to help new growers get off on the right foot in producing a quality product."

The amount of active ingredient in a medicinal plant is one of the most important factors in its value. The research has examined what effects stresses such as row spacing, weed competition and weather may have on the amount of active ingredient in a plant.

"We found that the level of active ingredient in echinacea angustifolia plants grown here is fine," said Beaulieu. "In terms of row spacing, a six to eight-inch in-row spacing is probably best for the plant, although we are not yet certain of the effect on active ingredient content."

Currently, no pesticides are registered for use on medicinal plants, making pest management a challenge. So far, the project has not experienced any major insect problems. The most significant pest problem has been aster yellows disease. This pathogen also infects a wide range of other host plant species.

"Aster yellows is spread by the aster leafhopper which arrives from the south on the wind," Beaulieu explained. "When the insect sucks sap from the plant, it transfers the pathogen to the plant."

Medicinal plant production is very labour intensive and requires a high degree of management input. It can also be very expensive to get into the business but it has the potential to reward the conscientious producer with high economic returns. According to Beaulieu, the best advice is to start small with a variety of plant species. This will help to lower the start-up costs and spread the risk for marketing.

He cautioned that it is critical to have a marketing plan in place before going to the expense and trouble of establishing the plants. He said that some people have been left with plants they couldn't sell because they grew them before they established a market for them.

The project will continue to gather information for producers looking to enter the medicinal plant industry.

This is the 15th in a series of news releases on agricultural sustainability produced by Covering New Ground, a program that funds local projects to help find economical solutions to environmental challenges in Manitoba's agricultural community.
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319 medicinal plants of Indian origin endangered

Vinson Kurian

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM, Nov. 3

THE International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has featured in its `Red List of Threatened Species' at least 319 terrestrial plant species of known medicinal value and traced to India.

These are among an increasing number of plant species facing extinction in the wild in the short or medium term, according to Dr John A. Parrotta, National Program Leader in International Science Issues at the US Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Dr Parrotta has made these observations in a paper being presented at the four-day World Ayurveda Congress (WAC) that is currently in session in Kochi.

Of the 319 terrestrial plant species identified, a significant proportion is used in traditional systems of medicine, including ayurveda. Threatened and endangered higher plants in South India include 36 medicinally important species (20), including such well-known species as Saraca asoca (Asoka), Pterocarpus santalinus (Raktachandana) and Rauvolfia serpentina (Sarpagandha). Considering that the conservation status of only a very small percentage of plant species has been assessed, the total number of threatened medicinal plant species in India can be projected to be in the hundreds, Dr Parrotta surmised.

Current rates of forest loss, forest degradation and depletion (or loss) of wild populations of medicinal plants represent a serious threat to the future of traditional medicine.

The well-being of the majority of the world's population who depend directly on plant drugs for their health care needs would also get badly hit in the process. So too, the capacity of forests to provide a broad spectrum of essential environmental goods and services.

Reversing these trends, and thereby ensuring the future supply of high-quality plant drugs, is a monumental task, but one that is compatible with the larger number of local, national and international efforts aimed at fulfilling the notable objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Dr Parrotta said.

The resolution of challenges related to the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plant resources is a major test for the CBD, its Global Strategy for Plant Conservation and the network of local-to-global organisations and initiatives that will determine the success of the CBD.

The growing recognition of the importance of forest biological diversity in meeting local (and increasingly global) health care needs provides an important opportunity for conservationists, traditional medicine proponents, local communities and others to work together to develop mutually-supporting solutions to problems associated with forest loss and biodiversity erosion.

"Sustained and coordinated efforts are needed to transform currently unsustainable practices of medicinal plant `mining' from wild sources to more ecologically sustainable, socially acceptable and economically equitable production and utilisation systems. This will require appropriate action, and changes, by the full range of society's `stakeholders' involved in the conservation, production, management, marketing, processing and use of medicinal plants and their derivatives,'' Dr Parrotta stated.


• EXTINCTION THREAT STALKS MEDICINAL PLANTS
by
Surabhi Khosla

http://www.the-south-asian.com/June2001/Medicinal%20plants%20India.htm

The World Wildlife fund has placed 33 rare Indian herbs on the critically endangered list and 17 on the endangered list. There are 16 in the vulnerable category and seven that are near-threatened.....

Endangered plants and herbs

What's common between Elephant Foot, Red Sanders and Ladies Slipper Orchids? These are all herbs that have been part of the Indian ecosystem since 1000 B.C. They have been used in traditional forms of Indian medicine and have provided solutions to even those health problems that have defied modern science.

The bad news is that these Indian herbs are now going extinct. Not just these, but over 7,500 species of herbal plants that have been used by Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Tibetan systems of health care face an uncertain future due to over exploitation.

In a recent threat assessment exercise undertaken by TRAFFIC India (Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce) set up by the World Wildlife Fund and the World Conservation Union) 33 plants have been placed on the critically endangered list and 17 on the endangered list. There are 16 in the vulnerable category and seven that are near-threatened.

Deforestation and rapid urbanization have eroded the natural agro climatic spaces in which these herbs grow. Overuse, unsustainable cultivation practices, illegal export and trade are scrooges that have further increased the vulnerability of these plants.

According to the report, other factors affecting the depletion of these herbs are the complete lack of monitoring and regulatory instruments and scant information about the importance of these medicinal plants. All these factors put together have made the ecosystem so vulnerable that they may well destroy India's 5000-year-old natural health legacy.

The great sage Vedavyasa's science of life or the Ayurveda, details the curative virtues of over one hundred herbal drugs that can treat a myriad of diseases depending on an individual's prakruti or biological mode.

Ayurvedic Healing

Healing in Ayurveda is based on the principle of Tridosha (three faults) that afflict people---Vata, Pitta and Kapha. Practitioners reconstruct body imbalances by introducing herbs appropriate to the body's dosha (fault). For the same disease, two people could be recommended different herbs depending upon whether the dominant dosha is Vata, Pitta or Kapha.

For example, chronic coughs in a Kapha personality is treated with dry, hot and spicy herbs whereas for the same problem a Vata personality is given soothing herbs that moisten the lungs. Tying herbs in a medicinal pouch around the neck is usually the treatment for jaundice. As the herb diminishes in size, the jaundice is said to disappear.

In ancient times, traditional healers needed to travel deep into the forests or high up into the mountains to source these valuable herbs, which explains why Lord Hanumana had to take a long flight to the Himalayas to bring back the sanjivini booti that was used by Vaid Sulukshana to revive Lakshman who was felled by an arrow fired by Ravana's son Meghnath.

Cultivation of these endangered herbs is now being attempted in greenhouses. TRAFFIC India's three-year project, Motivating Actions to Sustain Medicinal Plant Resource of the Indian Sub-continent is also encouraging experts to enter into partnership with communities that live in the agro-climatic zones where these herbs grow in a natural environment.

Herbal practitioners are known to use almost all segments of the plant in preparation of their medicines. Flowers, seeds, pollen, spores, tissue cultures, fruits, stem joints, wood veneers and wood chips, flowers and chemical by-products.

Long processes are often used to extract the derivative which then finds its way into the medicine satchel. Knowledge of the method of extraction has however, been shrouded in secrecy and traditionally remained vested in the Vaid.

Besides Vaids, the modern pharmaceutical industry too now uses nearly 400 plant species in the production of medicines. However, unchecked consumption can cause scarcity, tempting the use of synthetic substitutes and adulterants as replacements of the original.

That is one of the main reasons why TRAFFIC India has started to ring the alarm bells. Actively engaged in promoting conservation and environmental protection of endangered species, it is functioning as a regulatory body, seeking to create a body of sensitive citizens, to be a part of an informer network within the country to sustain India's medicinal resources.

Environmentalists, health specialists, cultivators, traders, cooperatives, industries and NGO groups have been used to highlight the issues of concern and evolve a common action agenda for preservation of herbs in India.

Good industrial practices, enhancing availability of medicinal plants through development of cultivation technology, silviculture, formation of cooperatives for collection and value addition to the trade, crop insurance, watching over movement of material within the region, effective testing and patenting procedures, are some suggested measures to avoid over exploitation of these resources.

Messages are proposed to be incorporated into school textbooks in order to create awareness among children. The Akhil Bharatiya Ayurveda Mahasammellan has begun to compel the industry to use medicinal herbs in a sustainable manner.

For countless centuries, the practice of herbal medicine has dominated the Indian subcontinent and provided health care to a majority of people. It is once more back in vogue. Herbal cosmetic products are in great demand both within India and globally.

The US pharmaceutical giants are vying for patents of plants and herbs like neem, turmeric, amla, tulsi, as these provide cures to a range of health problems. Plants are medicinal powerhouses known to cure even far advanced diseases.

The sudden rise in demand and depletion of these life-giving herbs is causing great concern to environmentalists who are urging the government to frame clear policy rules for exploitation and re-cultivation of these life-giving medicinal plants.

Some experts like Dr. B.L.Dua of the Medicinal Plants Research Division claim that there is also a cure for AIDS and cancer hidden in these plants and herbs. But, he warns, " They are living resources, exhaustible if overused. They can only become sustainable if used with care and wisdom."
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Hello to all

I received this some time ago but did nothing about it! What is the
general feeling about these requests, they are not infrequent!?

Yvette van Wijk

------- Forwarded Message Follows -------
Date sent: Tue, 07 Jan 2003 14:17:23 -0600
From: botresearchusa <botresearchusa@academicplanet.com>
Subject: Your Assistance Please
To: yvwijk@pixie.co.za

Madame,

I am writing to introduce and aquaint you with our organization, its goals and missions and to seek your help. Botresearch USA is a non-profit botanical research and biotechnology organization headquartered in Spring, Texas.

Our mission is threefold; research to expand the base of knowledge pertaining to a very important plant family (Lamiaceae/ Labiatae); decimation of educational materials for use by university students of Botany, Horticulture and Biotechnology; and the use of biotechnological methods to mass
produce species within this family which are "Red Listed" as endangered or threatened, and either seed or stage II or stage III seedlings sent to appropriate organization for reintroduction and thereby helping to reverse the current status of a given specie.

As a member organization of the Plant Conservation Alliance which is in turn affiliated with the IUCN, we take our mission seriously and believe that all three areas are equally important and in fact must be interrelated to be successful. It is with this mission and the goal of producing a
positive impact in all three areas over the next five years, that we ask your assistance in the acquisition of seed for species that are endemic, found locally, or those which are Red Listed and belong to this family. The more species we are able to collect and subject to anatomical, chemical,
and physiological studies, and to photomicrographic documentation and tissue culture, the more can be included in our educational publications. We of course will give credit for all material furnished in all publications, and any "Red List" material tissue cultured will be made available to your
organization

Regards,
J.N.Covanes
Director of Research
Botresearch USA
23410 Harpergate
Spring, Texas 77373
USA
www.botresearch.com

"Sharing botanical knowledge with industry, universities, and the general public"


Yvette van Wijk
- writing on behalf of the Garden Route Botanical Garden Trust
incorporating the Southern Cape Herbarium, the IMITHI Medicinal Plant project,
and their Botanical & Environmental Education Project (BEEP) sponsored by The Green Trust

We are an independent nonprofit organisation located -
49 Caledon Street, George, 6529. Tel/Fax: 044-8741558

Please visit the Garden and the Herbarium when in this area!
Reply


• Cultivation versus wild harvesting of medicinal plants: is cultivation the sole solution?
Up to 90 per cent of species of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) traded in Europe are still harvested from the wild, and a rapid growth in the market is now resulting in over-exploitation of wild stocks of some species.

According to TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring programme, over-exploitation threatens up to 150 species in at least one European country (Lange 1998). Modern destructive harvesting techniques, and habitat loss and alteration resulting largely from changing agricultural practices
over the past 100-200 years, are threatening the local survival of species or varieties.

The extinction of the ancient plant Silphion in about 250BC probably caused by its uncontrolled harvest provides a warning of the need for sustainable management of plants while it is still possible (see Fact sheet 3: `Use of plants for medicine around the world').

Changes in political and related socio-economic structures can placed MAPs under threat. The collapse of communist regimes in former Eastern Bloc countries in Europe resulted in deregulation of state-controlled commerce and a weakening of pre-existing quota-controlled harvesting structures. As a result, the number of traders in MAPs has increased and wild collection has grown in an uncoordinated fashion (Lange 1998). This has not necessarily benefited the traditional harvesters or the continuation of the stocks on which they have
depended.

CULTIVATION

Out of about 2,000 MAPs traded in Europe, 1,200-1,300 are native to the continent with only 130-140 species predominantly derived from cultivated stock. An estimated 70,000 hectares of land are devoted to the cultivation of MAPs in the European Union. France, Hungary and Spain have large areas under cultivation (Lange 1998), major species including lavender (Lavandula spp.), opium poppy (Papaver somniferum ), caraway (Carum carvi ), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare ) and peppermint (Mentha x piperita ). Other countries with large-scale cultivation include Argentina, Chile, China, India and Poland (Kuipers 1997).

Cultivation is commercially attractive to companies because they have greater control over quality and supply. Its feasibility depends on a species' ability to thrive as a monocrop, while its economic viability depends on the volumes required and market prices. MAPs likely to be cultivated are those that are high yielding and responsive to economies of scale. Slow-growing,space-demanding, or low-yielding species are less likely to be economically attractive to commercial growers.

Cultivation is particularly advantageous for growers where there are long-standing partnerships and contractual arrangements to supply manufacturers. Domestication of a species can be difficult and expensive. As a result, wild harvesting is likely to remain the only option for many species. Wild harvesting is generally much cheaper than expenses incurred in the establishment of cultivation, a process which may take 20 years (Kuipers s.a.; Lange 1998).

Cultivation of MAPs is a promising means of meeting an expanding market while reducing pressure on populations of wild plants (Lange 1998). Cultivation can have the potential to save wild populations of MAPs, thus contributing towards conservation of their genetic diversity.

Conservation of genetic diversity can also be achieved through ex situ
efforts involving botanic gardens and seedbanks, preferably in combination with in situ measures.

WILD HARVESTING

While many MAPs are common in the wild and can be freely harvested without undue concern,some of the most popular and most traded are under severe threat from over-harvesting. They face commercial or local extinction, if not necessarily global extinction (Lange 1998).

Wild-harvesting of MAPs in Europe is still prominent in Hungary, Spain, Turkey and many former Eastern Bloc countries such as Albania, the Czech Republic and Poland. Between 20,000 and 30,000 tonnes of wild-plant material are collected annually in Europe (Lange 1998) and more than 500 MAPs were harvested from the wild in France during 1988-89 (Kuipers s.a.).

Between 30 and 50 per cent of MAP material in trade in Hungary is wild-collected, the equivalent figures for Germany being 50-70 per cent, 75-80 per cent for Bulgaria and almost 100 per cent for Albania and Turkey (Lange 1998).

Trade in MAPs is largely unmonitored and harvesting practices are frequently unsustainable. It is rare for there to be effective controls over the amounts harvested. In general, there is little knowledge of the ecology and regeneration abilities of many MAPs and, accordingly, little understanding of steps necessary to ensure the maintenance of populations.

An advantage in maintaining wild populations of a species, not least through their sustainable harvesting, is that reserves of genetic variability remain. These can also be useful for re-invigorating cultivated stock. It can be assumed that each individual wild population will normally be quite genetically diverse. The sum total of all the wild populations of a species,across its geographical range, constitutes an invaluable resource. Wild populations frequently contain genes of value in plant-breeding for instance to increase the levels of active principlesor to convey resistance to disease. Countries can protect their wild gene-pools of MAPs by working with corporate users to introduce policies that link controlled harvesting with habitat management and monitoring. Such policies may be difficult to enforce across the entire territories of countries and it is suggested that measures be introduced at trial sites and then expanded.

In Spain, almost 100 per cent of thyme (see also Factsheet 1: `Towards sustainable herbal medicine') comes from wild plants, mainly growing in the south-east, where most of the companies dealing in this commodity are situated (Lange 1998). The herb is harvested in May and June by uprooting whole plants, often using machines, with the result that entire hillsides are stripped. Disturbance to the topsoil and clearance of vegetation cover make slopes vulnerable to erosion. Furthermore, the removal of whole plants destroys rootstocks, so that they become unavailable as sources of new shoots. Opinion is divided as to whether this practice is damaging: some say it stimulates regeneration from seed, although this still leaves the collateral damage of erosion. Possibly, the extent of erosion is dependent on the degree of disturbance.

Harvesting could be made more sustainable by just cutting the branches. Furthermore, increased cultivation would reduce the need for wild harvesting. Weleda, a Swiss-based herbal remedies and cosmetics company, has found that Arnica ( Arnica Montana ) can be harvested sustainably if only sections of the above-ground parts of the plants are removed together with only small parts of the rhizomes. This method stimulates dormant buds in the remaining rhizomes into growth and avoids losses of whole plants or severe disturbance to the habitat (Ellenberger, 1998).
Collection from the wild may be unavoidable or even preferable for those many MAPs that grow slowly, are difficult to domesticate or for which only small quantities are needed. The cost of wild-collection is typically much less than that of cultivation.

Risks associated with wild collection include:

over-harvesting of endemic MAPs species with very restricted geographic distributions can be vulnerable to extinction;loss of genetic diversity through the reduction or elimination of local plant populations with unique genetic characteristics; and the unnecessary destruction of plants resulting from careless and unsophisticated harvesting practices (Harnischfeger 2000).

Some practitioners and patients prefer to use wild stock because they believe in the greater efficacy of wild-harvested material. To investigate this, the University of Westminster has established a programme, Herbs at Highgrove ,to study herb-growing in Britain. Initial findings indicate a loss of efficacy in cultivated stock. These results mirror a conclusion reached through research by the herbal company Weleda with reference to Arnica (Arnica montana).

Arnica thrives in poor meadows with acidic soils in mountainous areas of Europe. It is listed as endangered in the Red Data Books for Germany and Hungary (Lange 1998). In cultivation trials a selected cultivar initially showed promise (Ellenberger 1998), but analysis of its biochemical properties revealed differences with wild populations. Although the cultivated stock grew vigorously, their rhizomes were found to have lost much of Arnica's characteristic smell and taste, reducing its commercial potential.

A search was then made for a better strain, which was eventually successful. This example demonstrates that conservation of wild populations is needed to identify varieties for cultivation and as sources of useful genes.

Wild-harvested material can be much higher-priced and sought after. For example, the cultivation of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius ) might not save this species from extinction in the wild, because Asian buyers will pay up to 30 times more for wild-harvested roots, which is a huge incentive for collectors.

On the other hand, it is easier to ensure that standards of quality are maintained, including given levels of active compounds, with

cultivation. Also, it is easier to control post-harvest treatment, providing buyers with consistent products.



WHAT ARE THE SOCIAL BENEFITS OF WILD HARVESTING OR LOCAL MULTI-

CROPPING SYSTEMS?

Harvesting MAPs from the wild is generally a seasonal activity, providing a supplementary income for rural people such as stock-herders, women, children and the retired generally the poorest people in communities (Lange 1998). On the other hand, small-scale cultivation of MAPs, often in multi-cropping systems, can be a means by which low-income families can boost their earnings. In Guatemala, the German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) has shown that medicinal plants can be integrated successfully into traditional farming systems with food-crops such as maize, beans and vegetables, and that they can provide a regular income (Eid 2000).



Where harvesting is regulated by custom or law, wild-harvesting can be sustainable and of benefit to conservation, as well as maintaining sources of income for local people. At village-level in many developing countries and more traditional societies, medicinal plants can provide some of the strongest links between people and nature. Maintaining such links through the sustainable harvesting of MAPs can be a crucial factor to ensure the continuation of those traditional cultural landscapes in which MAPs thrive, such as traditionally-managed Alpine meadows or the Hungarian Steppes.

The conservation of vulnerable habitats and species by designation of parks or reserves can attract tourists and provide jobs to local people with few other opportunities for regular employment. Plants such as bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata) could be protected in this way.

Wetlands are disappearing across the world and bogbean is becoming increasingly scarce as its wetland habitat is drained.

Cultivation of MAPs does not necessarily result in gains for conservation and social welfare,particularly in poorer countries. In order to cultivate MAPs, growers need to have secure tenure of their land, spare land for planting and be able to afford necessary inputs which can include machinery and agrochemicals. Richer members of communities are therefore most likely to benefit, while the poor have little option but to continue harvesting from the wild though perhaps with even less benefit.

Wild harvesting of MAPs provides a cash income for the poorest sectors of society, especially in non-industrialised countries. However, prices paid to these people for the material collected are generally lower than for cultivated material (Lange 1998). Wild-harvesters sometimes have the additional problem of little certainty that traders will return regularly to purchase their harvests. Fairer prices for collectors and incentives for better management are needed (see Factsheet 3: `Use of plants for medicine around the world'). Fair trade schemes now being adopted in Europe and North America can contribute to fairer prices and better management.

CONCLUSION: IS CULTIVATION A VIABLE ALTERNATIVE TO WILD HARVESTING
OF MAPS?

This is not an either/or situation, but more a case of developing structures that support existing sustainable practices of wild harvest, leading to recognition of the contributions that can be made by both wild harvesting and cultivation. Wild-growing plants are sources of genetic diversity needed by the MAP industry for developing new cultivars. Furthermore, many MAPs are unsuited to high-volume mono-cropping, or the market for them is too small to be worth the expense of introducing large-scale cultivation. On the other hand, demand for MAPs can often only be met through extensive cultivation. Both wild harvesting and cultivation have social dimensions. Taken together, locally-based cultivation and wild harvesting can be effective means of providing income for the poorest sectors of society and contribute to social stability,
while supporting conservation. Progress will be largely dependent on support by governments and industry.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Eid, U. (2000). Medicinal plants in German development co-operation.
In "Medicinal utilisation of wild species: challenge for man and nature in the new millennium", pp. 24-25. WWF Germany and TRAFFIC Europe, Hanover.

Ellenberger, A. (1998). Assuming responsibility for a protected plant: Weleda's endeavour to secure the firm's supply of Arnica montana

In "First international symposium on the conservation of medicinal plants in trade in Europe", pp. 127-30. TRAFFIC Europe, Kew, UK.

Harnischfeger, G. (2000). Proposed guidelines for commercial collection of medicinal plant material.

Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants
7, 43-50.

Kuipers, S.E. (s.a.). Trade in medicinal plants. Natural Medicine Marketing, London.

Lange, D. (1998). Europe's medicinal and aromatic plants: their use, trade and conservation. Traffic Europe/International, Cambridge UK.


BIO-IPR docserver
________________________________________________________

TITLE: Laws to protect indigenous knowledge, innovations needed
AUTHOR: Zephania Ubwani
PUBLICATION: The Guardian / IPP Media (Dar es Salaam)
DATE: 15 March 2003
URL: http://www.ippmedia.com/guardian/2003/03/15/guardian4.asp
________________________________________________________

LAWS TO PROTECT INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE, INNOVATIONS NEEDED

The Guardian / IPP Media
Dar es Salaam
15 March 2003

By Zephania Ubwani

A university don has called for the review of the legislation on
intellectual property rights in Tanzania to make it protect indigenous
knowledge and innovations of the local communities.

The review and harmonisation of the laws and regulations would not only help
and guarantee the local communities to maintain their traditional knowledge
and innovations but ensure they benefited from the control of such information.

Dr. Palamagamba J. Kabudi of the University of Dar es Salaam told a workshop
on Indigenous Knowledge in the city on Wednesday that the intellectual
property rights regime in Tanzania did not adequately protect the
traditional knowledge of the local people and must be reviewed.

"A special legislation has to be enacted to better enable the local
communities to protect and control their knowledge, innovations and
practices such as plant varieties", he said.

It was unfortunate that the legislation on intellectual property rights in
Tanzania was confined to protecting the rights of inventors, scientists,
commercial breeders and biotechnology companies but weak on the protection
of traditional knowledge.

"This is because traditional knowledge is usually considered not new and
lacks novelty and its attendant components," explained Dr. Kabudi, a senior
lecturer in Law at the University of Dar es Salaam.

He proposed the enactment of legislation on intellectual property rights
requiring approval of and benefit -sharing with the local communities
through appropriate government institutions.

"It is advisable that this legislation should include access to both
knowledge and genetic resources which are taken away and patented ex-situ,"
he said.

Dr. Kabudi also called for the establishment of ethical guidelines and codes
of conduct for the collection and dissemination as well as benefit-sharing
for traditional knowledge, innovations and practices.

Prof. George Kajembe of the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) said
indigenous knowledge, which has sustained the local people in Tanzania and
elsewhere in Africa for generations, had until recently been seen as a
hindrance to modernisation.

Lack of recognition, understanding and use of indigenous knowledge have led
to environmental degradation and loss of the country's bio-diversity.

He warned on the implications of patents and other forms of intellectual
property rights on living organisms such as plants for commercial purposes,
saying they encouraged bio-piracy and theft of the country's resources.

"The types of rights Tanzania needs are not those intellectual property
rights which monopolise for commercial purposes what belong to the
communities but those rights that recognise and protect the lives and
livelihood of the local communities," he said.


_________________________________________________________
For general information about GRAIN, please visit our website
http://www.grain.org or write us at mailto:grain@grain.org.


Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Brazil
Roberto F. Vieira*
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-152.html

1. THE BRAZILIAN VEGETATION
2. GERMPLASM CONSERVATION
3. PRIORITY SPECIES
1. Maytenus ilicifolia Martius ex Reiss., Celastraceae (Espinheira Santa)
2. Pfaffia paniculata Martius, Amaranthaceae (Brazilian Ginseng)
3. Phyllanthus niruri L., Euphorbiaceae (Quebra Pedra)
4. Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf., Rutaceae (Jaborandi)
5. Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, Rubiaceae (Ipecac)
6. Solanum mauritianum Scop., Solanaceae (Cuvitinga)
7. Exotic Species
4. REFERENCES

THE BRAZILIAN VEGETATION

Approximately two thirds of the biological diversity of the world is found in tropical zones, mainly in developing countries. Brazil is considered the country with the greatest biodiversity on the planet, with nearly 55,000 native species distributed over six major biomes (Fig 1): Amazon (30,000); Cerrado (10,000); Caatinga (4,000); Atlantic rainforest (10,000), Pantanal (10,000) and the subtropical forest (3,000).

The Brazilian Amazon Forest (tropical rainforest) covers nearly 40% of all national territory, with about 20% legally preserved. This ecosystem is rather fragile, and its productivity and stability depend on the recycling of nutrients, whose efficiency is directly related to the biological diversity and the structural complexity of the forest (Anon. 1995). Giacometti (1990) estimated that there are about 800 plant species of economic or social value in the Amazon. Of these, 190 are fruit-bearing plants, 20 are oil plants, and there are hundreds of medicinal plants (Berg 1982).

The "Cerrado" is the second largest ecological dominion of Brazil, where a continuous herbaceous stratum is joined to an arboreal stratum, with variable density of woody species. The cerrados cover a surface area of approximately 25% of Brazilian territory and around 220 species from cerrado are reported as used in the traditional medicine (Vieira and Martins 1998).

The "Caatinga" extends over areas of the states of the Brazilian Northeast and is characterized by the xerophitic vegetation typical of a semi-arid climate. The soils that are fertile, due to the nature of their original materials and the low level of rainfall, experience minor runoff (Anon. 1995). Various fruit species and medicinal plants have their centers of genetic diversity in this region, and the use of local folk medicines is common. Several important aromatic species are reported for this region (Craveiro et al. 1994), such as Lippia spp. and Vanillosmopsis arborea.

The Atlantic Forest extends over nearly the whole Brazilian coastline, and is one of the most endangered ecosystems of the world, with less than 10% of the original vegetation remaining. The climate is predominantly hot and tropical, and precipitation ranges from 1,000 to 1,750 mm. The land is composed of hills and coastal plains, accompanied by a mountain range (Anon. 1995). Several important medicinal species are found in this region, such as Mikania glomerata, Bauhinia forficata, Psychotria ipecacuanha, and Ocotea odorifera.

The territory of the Meridional Forests and Grasslands includes the mesophytic tropical forests, the subtropical forests, and the meridional grasslands of the states of southern Brazil. The climate is tropical and subtropical, humid, with some areas of temperate climate. The naturally fertile soils, associated with the mild climate, allowed a rapid colonization during the last century, mainly by European and, more recently, by Japanese immigrants (Anon. 1995). Several medicinal plants, such as chamomile (Matricaria recutita), calendula (Calendula officinalis), lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), basil (Ocimum basilicum), and oregano (Origanum vulgare), were introduced and adapted by immigrants.

The Pantanal is a geologically lowered area filled with sediments which have settled in the basin of the Paraguay River. Pantanal flora is formed by species from both Cerrado and Amazon vegetation. More than 200 species useful for human and animal consumption as well as for industrial use have been recorded in this region (Anon. 1995).

GERMPLASM CONSERVATION

In the last decade, serious efforts to collect and preserve the genetic variability of medicinal plants have been initiated in Brazil. The National Center for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology-Cenargen, in collaboration with other research centers of Embrapa (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation), and several universities, has a program to establish germplasm banks for medicinal and aromatic species (Table 1).

The first step is to establish criteria to define a species priority, based on economic and social importance, markets, and potential genetic erosion. Vieira and Skorupa (1993) proposed the following criteria to define priority, as follows: (1) species with proven medicinal value including those containing known active substance(s) or precursor(s) used in the chemical-pharmaceutical industry with proven pharmacological action, or at least demonstrating pre-clinical and toxicological results; (2) species with ethnopharmacological information widely used in traditional medicine; and which are threatened or vulnerable to extinction; (3) species with chemotaxonomical affinity to botanical groups which produce specific natural products.

Conservation of threatened germplasm includes seed banks, field preservation, tissue culture, and cryopreservation. Seed storage is considered the ideal method; seeds considered orthodox can be dried and are able to be preserved at sub-zero temperatures (-20�C), while recalcitrant seeds, including most tropical species, lose their seed viability when subjected to the same conditions. Maintenance of the germplasm in field collections is costly, requires large areas, and can be affected by adverse environmental conditions. Tissue culture or cryopreservation techniques can be also considered in some cases.

The next step is to decide which germplasm conservation method will be applied: ex situ or in situ. In an ex situ procedure, the germplasm is collected from fields, markets, small farms, and other sites, in form of seeds, cuttings, underground systems, and sprouts. The collected samples should represent the original population with passport data and herbarium vouchers. In a long term, mutation can take place over the years in a cold chamber or in vitro conservation. In contrast, in situ conservation maintains population in its preserved natural area, allowing the evolutionary process to continue, although genetic reserves are subject to anthropogenic action and environmental effects. Most in situ conservation has focused in forest species, with some medicinal species included, such as Pilocarpus microphyllus and Aniba roseodora. The establishment of genetic reserves in Brazil has relied on National Parks and conservation areas established by the environmental protection agency of Brazil, Ibama.

There are now five forest genetic reserves in Brazil: one in the Amazon Tropical Rainforest, state of Para; one in the Caatinga, state of Minas Gerais; two in the Cerrado in the Federal District, and one in the Meridional Forest (Subtropical) in the state of Santa Catarina. Four other genetic reserves are being created; two in the Atlantic Forest in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Espirito Santo, one in the Caatinga in the state of Piaui, and another in the Tropical Humid Forest in transition with Cerrado in the state of Minas Gerais (Anon. 1995). These reserves aim to conserve the most endangered species and those of greatest economic interest, including medicinal and aromatic plants.

The Brazilian program on medicinal germplasm conservation has three foci: (1) ethnobotanical studies; (2) germplasm collection and characterization; and (3) in situ conservation. Ethnobotanic and phytogeographic studies on the medicinal flora of Cerrado have been able to identify and collect genetic material for conservation. About 110 species used in traditional medicine were reported in the Cerrado region (Vieira et al. 1998). Bibliography review and a herbaria search were carried out allowing an estimation of the medicinal potential of each species studied, their geographic distribution, and period of fruit maturation.

In 1994, a cooperative project between the Bras�lia Botanical Garden and Embrapa/Cenargen was established. An in vivo collection of medicinal plants from Cerrado, now contains 161 accessions (Dias et al. 1995). The collection has facilited phytochemical and pharmacological studies of this plant materials, and an anti-inflamatory agent has been identified on Lychnophora salicifolia (Miguel et al. 1997).

PRIORITY SPECIES
A few germplasm collections of medicinal and aromatic plants have been established in Brazil (Table 2). The following species, listed alphabetically, have been recognized as priority for germplasm conservation.
Table 2. List of medicinal and aromatic species with high priority for germplasm collection and conservation in Brazil.

Species
Achyrocline satureioides L.
Ageratum conyzoides L.
Aniba roseodora Ducke
Astronium urundeuva (Fr. All.) Engl.
Baccharis trimera DC.
Bauhinia forficata L.
Caryocar brasiliensis Camb.
Copaifera langsdorffi Desf.
Croton cajucara Benth.
Croton zehntneri Pax et Hoff.
Datura insignis B. Rodr.
Dimorphandra mollis Benth.
Echinodorus macrophyllus (Kunth.) Mich
Jatropha elliptica (Pohl) Baill.
Lychnophora ericoides Mart.; L. salicifolia Mart.
Mandevilla vellutina Mart.
Maytenus ilicifolia Mart. ex. Reiss; M. aquifolium Mart.
Mikania glomerata Spreng.
Ocotea odorifera (Vell.) Rohwer
Operculina macrocarpa (L.) Farwel
Piper hispidinervum DC.
Pfaffia paniculata (Martius) Kuntze
Phyllanthus niruri L.
Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf.
Psychotria ipecacuanha(Brot.) Stokes
Pterodon emarginatus Vogel
Solanum mauritianum Scopoli
Cuvitinga
Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville
Tabebuia avellanedae (Lor.) ex. Griseb.
Vanillosmopsis arborea (Aguiar) Ducke

In situ, field collection

Maytenus ilicifolia Martius ex Reiss., Celastraceae (Espinheira Santa)
Espinheira santa is a small shrub evergreen tree reaching up to 5 m height. It is native to many parts of southern Brazil, mainly in Paran� and Santa Catarina states.

Leaves of Maytenus species are used in the popular medicine of Brazil for their reported antiacid and antiulcerogenic activity. The effects of a boiling water extract of equal parts of M. aquifolium and M. ilicifolia leaves have been tested in rats and mice. Attempts to detect general depressant, hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and analgesic effects were reported by Oliveira et al. (1991). The potent antiulcerogenic effect of espinheira santa leaves was demonstrated effective compared to two leading anti-ulcer drugs, Ranitidine and Cimetidine (Souza-Formigoni et al., 1991). Toxicological studies demonstrated the plant's safety.

Seeds of Maytenus ilicifolia can be classified as orthodox and stored at -20�C in long-term cold chambers (Eira et al. 1995). The Forestry Department of the University of Paran� began a project in 1995 to study the genetic variability of natural populations of Maytenus ilicifolia and 78 accession were collected in the states of Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. Field collections are maintained at the university campus (Scheffer et al. 1998). Although cultivation of M. ilicifolia is the object of several studies in Brazil, a research focus on in situ conservation and sustainable systems of harvesting are required.

Pfaffia paniculata Martius, Amaranthaceae (Brazilian Ginseng)
Pfaffia is a large, shrubby ground vine, which has a deep root system. Pfaffia is well known in Central and South America with over 50 species growing in the warmer tropical regions of the area and has been exploited for more than 15 years. The species grow in the borders of Paran� river, but predatory collection has greatly reduced the natural populations.

In Brazil, Pfaffia is known as para tudo, which means "for all things" and also as Brazilian ginseng, since it is widely used like American and Asian ginseng (Panax spp.). The active substances are found in the roots.

This action is attributed to the anabolic agent, beta-ecdysterone as well as three novel ecdysteroid glycosides which are found in high amounts in Pfaffia. This species is such a rich source of beta-ecdysterone. The extraction methods employed to obtain it from this root is protected by a Japanese patent (Nishimoto et al. 1988).

The root of Pfaffia contains about 11% saponins. These saponins include a group of novel chemicals called pfaffosides as well as pfaffic acids, glycosides, and nortriperpenes. These saponins have clinically demonstrated the ability to inhibit cultured tumor cell melanomas and help to regulate blood sugar levels (Takumoto et al. 1983; Nishimoto 1984). The pfaffosides and pfaffic acid derivatives in Pfaffia have been patented as antitumor compounds in two Japanese patents (Japanese Patent 84184198, Oct. 19, 1984 by Rohto Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.).

Few accessions of Pfaffia are available in any of the present field collections. This species requires an immediate recollection to preserve the plant. Due to its economic importance a germplasm collection and characterization of its chemical constituents, is fully warranted.

Phyllanthus niruri L., Euphorbiaceae (Quebra Pedra)

Quebra pedra is a small erect annual herb growing up to 30 to 40 cm. height. Although several species are recognized by this common name, P. niruri and P. sellovianus are the most scientifically studied. The antispasmodic activity of alkaloids in Phyllanthus sellovianus explained the popular use of the plant for kidney and bladder stones. The alkaloid extract demonstrated smooth muscle relaxation specific to the urinary and biliary tract which facilitates the expulsion of kidney or bladder calculi (Calixto 1984; Santos 1994, 1995)

Quebra pedra has gained world-wide attention due to its effects against Hepatitis B (Thyagarajan 1982; Mehrotra 1990; Yeh, et al. 1993; Wang 1995). Recent research on quebra pedra reveals that its antiviral activity extends to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibition properties of P. niruri can be obtained with a simple water extract of the plant (Qian-Cutrone 1996). There have been no side effects or toxicity reported in any of the clinical studies or in its many years of reported use in herbal medicine.

Several species, called quebra pedra, contain the same or similar active compounds. A germplasm collection to study the genetic and chemical variation, as well as the seed physiology of this species is necessary and warranted.

Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf., Rutaceae (Jaborandi)

Jaborandi is an indigenous name (ia-mbor-end) of this species. Pilocarpus microphyllus contain the highest pilocarpine content in the leaves. The plant is an understory species, 6 to 8 m in height, of the pre-Amazonian rain forest in the states of Par�, Maranh�o, and Piau�.

Pilocarpine is an imidazolic alkaloid that stimulates the secretions of the respiratory tract, the salivary, lachrymal, gastric and other glands, weakens the heart action, accelerates the pulse rate, increases intestinal peristalsis and promotes uterine contractions (Morton 1977). In the treatment of glaucoma, the alkaloid pilocarpine acts directly on cholinergic receptor sites, thus mimicing the action of acetylcholine. Intraocular pressure is thereby reduced, and despite its short-term action, pilocarpine is the standard drug used for initial and maintenance therapy in certain types of primary glaucoma (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 1977). Recently, the US Food and Drug Administration approved pilocarpine for use to treat post-irradiation xerostomia (dry mouth) in patients with head and neck cancer (Pinheiro 1997).

The exploration of this product, due to its high economic value, has led to great scientific interest in research and development effects for domestication and conservation. Pinheiro (1997) reports that the price of jaborandi leaves has reached US$4.00/kg. The wild harvest or collection of leaves from wild P. microphyllus has been carrying out to such an extent that it has significantly reduced the natural populations, and this species is included in the official list of endangered plants from Brazilian flora (Anon. 1992).

In 1991, the Cenargen initiated a project for recollecting and conservation of the genetic variability of Pilocarpus microphyllus and related species. From 1991 to 1993, two collection expeditions were undertaken, covering the states of Par� and Maranh�o. A total of 27 accessions were collected in form of seeds and seedlings (Vieira, 1993). A germplasm bank of Jaborandi was established at Maranh�o State University, S�o Luis, and at Embrapa-Ocidental Amazon, Bel�m, Par� State.

Studies on the methodology of P. microphyllus conservation led to the conclusion that seeds of this species are considered orthodox. Seeds can be dried down to 6-8% moisture content and be conserved for a long period at -18�C and 5% relative humidity (Eira et al. 1993). A seed sample of all collected accessions is being maintained at Embrapa, Cenargen.

Native populations of P. microphyllus have suffered from anthropogenic activity, with plants of shorter size than normal due to intensive harvesting of leaves. It will be challenge to stimulate the management and cultivation of this species in its native habitat. Although seeds can be preserved for long periods, in situ conservation must be initiated and natural reserves established. This species can be only found in indigenous areas, and some private lands.

Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, Rubiaceae (Ipecac)

Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.)Stokes [== Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A.Rich.] is a shrub, whose medicinal value relates to the production of emetine in the roots. Ipecac is found in the humid forests of Central America, Colombia, southern part of the Amazon Forest in the States of Rond�nia, Mato Grosso, and Atlantic forest, in the States of Bahia, Esp�rito Santo, Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro (Skorupa and Assis 1998).

Ipecac as a powerful emetic, is used in gastrointestinal diseases, diarrhea, and intermitent fevers. It is employed as an expectorant, in bronchitis, broncopneumonia, asthma and mumps, and also as a vasoconstrictor. In 1959, dihydroxi-emetine, an emetine analogue, was presented as an amoebicide due to its reduced toxic effect on cardiac muscle (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 1977).

The global production of ipecac averages 100 t a year, originated mainly from Nicar�gua, Brazil and India (Husain 1991). Considering the economic and medicinal values of ipecac, the deforestation of the areas of occurrence and the extrativist nature of its production, in 1988, Cenargen has began a program for the recollecting and conservation of the genetic variability of this species. From 1988 to 1991, five collecting expeditions were undertaken, covering the States of Rondonia, Mato Grosso, Pernambuco, Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas Gerais, and a total of 86 accessions were collected (Skorupa and Assis 1998) and now maintained in field germplasm banks at Embrapa-Ocidental Amazon, Bel�m, Para, and at Florestas Rio doce, Linhares, Espirito Santo. Recently, other germplasm collections was established at the University of North Fluminense, which contains 10 accessions originated from the Atlantic Forest area (states of Rio de Janeiro and S�o Paulo).

Solanum mauritianum Scop., Solanaceae (Cuvitinga)
The steroidal alkaloids of the Solanaceae are compounds of considerable pharmaceutical interest as starting materials for the synthesis of steroid compounds such as anticontraceptive steroids and corticosteroids. The world demand for steroid precursors continues to increase while some of the traditional sources of steroidal raw material, such as yams (Dioscorea spp.) of Mexico and Central America, are becoming rapidly depleted (Roddick 1986). Solasodine is a chemical analog of diosgenin, and may be a substitute for this drug.

There are around 1,100 species of Solanum in South America, and S. mauritianum is among the species with the highest solasodine content (Vieira and Carvalho 1993). Solanum mauritianum is a subtropical shrub which grow all over southern Brazil. The solasodine content of S. mauritianum was evaluated in green fruits of natural populations growing on two different soils. High contents of solasodine were found in both population of S. mauritianum (from 2% to 3.5% of total dry weight) (Vieira 1989). Germplasm collections are needed to continue the study of genetic and environmental variation of solasodine, and to provide foundation study for future development programs.

Exotic Species

Although the major focus of germplasm conservation is on native species, several exotic, introduced and adapted species have been widely used and cultivated in Brazil. Many of them, such as lemongrass [Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf.] and aloe (Aloe spp.), are cultivated in backyard gardens. Others, such as pic�o-preto (Bidens pilosum L.), mastru�o (Chenopodium ambrosioides L.), and mentrasto (Ageratum conyzoides L.), whose adaptation through the years, has allowed a spontaneous wide distribution throughout the country, have had their use well disseminated (Dias 1995). In southern Brazil, due to favorable cultural and environmental conditions, several exotic species are cultivated in large areas. These include chamomile (Matricaria recutita), calendula (Calendula officinalis), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Duboisia sp., and Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis), all of which are deserving of collection and preservation due to the use of their natural products and the agricultural-based industries that produce these crops. The germplasm collection of exotic species also needs to be expanded to provide genetic resource for species adapted in Brazil. Although Brazil is not their genetic center of origin, different chemotypes have been naturalized (Mattos, pers. commun. 1994) and need to be conserved. One example is Coleus barbatus, which was introduced from Africa, and is clonally propagated in Brazil. However, several volatile oils chemotypes are found in Brazil for this species, probably due to different introductions from Africa in the past.

REFERENCES
* Anon. 1992. Instituto Brasileiro do Meio ambiente e dos recursos naturais renov�veis. Portaria no. 06N, de 15.01.1992. Di�rio Oficial, Bras�lia, 23, Jan., 1992. p. 870-872.
* Anon. 1995. International Conference and Programme for Plant Genetic Resources (ICPPGR). Country Report. http://www.cenargen.embrapa.br/rec_gen/country/country.
* Berg, M.E. van den. 1982. Plantas medicinais na Amaz�nia: Contribui��o ao seu estudo sistem�tico. Bel�m, CNPq/PTU.
* Calixto, J.B. 1984. Antispasmodic effects of an alkaloid extracted from Phyllanthus sellowianus: Comparative study with papaverine. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 17(3-4):313-321.
* Craveiro, A.A.; M.I.L. Machado, J.W. Alencar, and F.J.A. Matos. 1994. Natural product chemistry in north-eastern Brazil. p. 95-102. In: G.T. Prance, D.J Chadwick, and J. March (eds.), Symposium on ethnobotany and search for new drugs. Ciba Foundation Symposium 185. Fortaleza, Brasil.
* Dias, T.A.B., R.F. Vieira, M.V.M. Martins, C.M.C. Mello, M.C. Boaventura, A.E. Ramos, M.C. Assis, F.A. Ramos, P.P. Monteiro, and G.M.C.L. Reis. 1995. Conservacao ex-situ de recursos geneticos do cerrado: plantas medicinais, ornamentais e meliponideos. In: Proc. Int. Savanna Simposium, Brasilia, DF, Embrapa/CPAC. p. 195-197.
* Eira, M.T.S., T.A.B. Dias, and C.M.C. Mello. 1995. Physiological behaviour of Maytenus ilicifolia seeds during storage. Hort. Bras. 13(1):32-34.
* Eira, M.T.S.; R.F. Vieira, C.M.C. Mello, and R.W.A. Freitas. 1992. Conserva��o de sementes de Jaborandi (Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf.). Rev. Brasileira de Sementes 14(1):37-39.
* Giacometti, D.C. 1990 Estrategias de coleta e conservacao de germoplasma horticola da America tropical. In: Proc. Simposio Latinoamericano sobre recursos geneticos de especies horticolas, 1. Campinas/SP. Fundacao Cargill. p. 91-110.
* Husain, A. 1991. Economic Aspects of Exploitation of Medicinal Plants. In: O. Akerele, V. Heywood, and H. Synge (eds.), Conservation of medicinal plants. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
* Lewis, W.H. and P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical botany. Wiley, New York.
* Mehrotra, R. 1990. In vitro studies on the effect of certain natural products against hepatitis B virus. Indian J. Med. Res. 92:133-138.
* Miguel, O.G., E.O. Lima, V.M.F. Morais, S.T.A. Gomes, F.D. Monache, A.B. Cruz, R.C.B. Cruz, and V. Cechinel Filho. 1996. Antimicrobial activity of constituents isolated from Lychnophora salicifolia (Asteraceae). Phytotherapy Res. 10:694-696.
* Morton, J.F. 1977. Major medicinal plants. Charles C. Thomas, Illinois. p. 187-189.
* Nishimoto, N., S. Nakai, N. Takagi, S. Hayashi, T. Takemoto, S. Odashima, H. Kizu, and Y. Wada. 1984. Pfaffosides and nortriterpenoid saponins from Pfaffia paniculata. Phytochemistry 23:139-42.
* Nishimoto, N, Y. Shiobara, S.S. Inoue, M. Fujino, T. Takemoto, C.L. Yeoh, F.D. Oliveira, G. Akisue, M.K. Akisue, and G. Hashimoto. 1988. Three ecdysteroid glycosides from Pfaffia iresinoides. Phytochemistry 27:1665-1668.
* Oliveira, M.G.M., M.G. Monteiro, C. Macaubas, V.P. Barbosa, and E.A. Carlini. 1991. Pharmacologic and toxicologic effects of two Maytenus species in laboratory animals. J. Ethno-Pharmacology 34:29-41.
* Pinheiro, C.U.B. 1997. Jaborandi (Pilocarpus sp., Rutaceae): a wild species and its rapid transformation into a crop. Econ. Bot. 51:49-58.
* Qian-Cutrone, J. 1996. Niruriside, a new HIV REV/RRE binding inhibitor from Phyllanthus niruri. J. Nat. Prod. 59:196-199.
* Roddick, J.G. 1986. Solanaceae: Biology and systematics. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
* Santos, A.R. 1994. Analgesic effects of callus culture extracts from selected species of Phyllanthus in mice. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 46:755-759.
* Santos, A.R. 1995. Analysis of the mechanisms underlying the antinociceptive effect of the extracts of plants from the genus Phyllanthus. Gen. Pharmacol. 26:1499-1506.
* Scheffer, M.C., L.C. Ming, and A.J. Araujo. 1998. Conservacao de recursos geneticos de plantas medicinais. In: Simposio sobre Recursos Geneticos do Semi-Arido. Embrapa -Semi- Arido, Petrolina, PE (in press).
* Skorupa, L.A. and M.C. Assis. 1998. Collecting and conserving Ipecac (Psychotria ipecacuanha, Rubiaceae) germplasm in Brazil. Econ. Bot. 52:209-210.
* Souza-Formigoni, M.L.O., M.G.M. Oliveira, M.G. Monteiro, N.G. Silveira-Filho, S. Braz, and E.A. Carlini. 1991. Antiulcerogenic effects of two Maytenus species in laboratory animals. J. Ethno-Pharmacology 34 (1):21-27.
* Takemoto, T., N. Nishimoto, S. Nakai, N. Takagi, S. Hayashi, S. Odashima, and Y. Wada. 1983. Pfaffic acid, a novel nortriterpene from Pfaffia paniculata Kuntze. Tetrahedron Lett. 24, 1057-1060.
* Thyagarajan, S.P. 1982. In vitro inactivation of HBsAg by Eclipta alba Hassk and Phyllanthus niruri Linn. Indian J. Med. Res. 76:124-130.
* Vieira, R.F. 1989. Avalia��o do teor de solasodina em frutos verdes de Solanum mauritianum Scop. sob dois solos no estado do Paran�, Brasil. MS theses. Curitiba, Universidade Federal do Paran�.
* Vieira, R.F. 1993. Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf. G15 Gene Bank Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Newslett. 3-4:4-5.
* Vieira, R.F. and L.A. Skorupa. 1993. Brazilian medicinal plants gene bank. Acta Hort. 330:51-58.
* Vieira, R.F. and L.D.A. de Carvalho. 1993. Esp�cies medicinais do g�nero Solanum produtoras de alcal�ides esteroidais. Rev. Brasileira Farm�cia 74:97-111.
* Vieira, R.F. and M.V.M. Martins. 1998. Estudos etnobotanicos de especies medicinais de uso popular no Cerrado. In: Proc. Int. Savanna Simposium, Brasilia, DF, Embrapa/CPAC. p.169-171.
* Wang, M. 1995. Herbs of the genus Phyllanthus in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B: observations with three preparations from different geographic sites. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 126:350-352.
* Yeh, S.F. et al. 1993. Effect of an extract from Phyllanthus amarus on hepatitis B surface antigen gene expression in human hepatoma cells. Antiviral Res. 20:185-92.
*I thank Sergio Eustaquio and all germplasm curators for their suggestions and collaboration and Dr. Jules Janick and James Simon for their review.
•
• List members,

Botresearch USA is a botanical research organization working on members of the Lamiaceae/Labiatae family.Our
study encompasses anatomical, chemical and physiological
aspects with the evaluation of these species for new pharmaceutical prospects. In addition to this we have set up
a garden area for the conservation of these species and a lab for the tissue culture of threatened and endangered species which are produced and returned for re-introduction into their native habitat.Seed from these species are retained in a seed bank in addition to being preserved in the garden area.

We are currently interested in finding contacts in South and Central America and Africa with similar interests that would like to cooperate in a joint venture.Currently we hold a cooperators status in the Plant Conservation Alliance and are looking for others.
Regards,
J.N.Covanes
Director of Research
Botresearch USA
23410 Harpergate
Spring, Texas 77373
USA
www.botresearch.com

"Sharing botanical knowledge with industry, universities, and the general public"

The first legal harvesters of protected medicinal plants in South Africa
Nicci Diederichs, Coert Geldenhuys & Dominic Mitchell

The Sizamimphilo Bark Harvesters Association leads the way for sustainable living and conservation of biodiversity

There has been considerable growth in the medicinal plant industry in South Africa over the past few years. Large urban markets (e.g. Durban and Johannesburg) have developed for trade in traditionally used medicinal plants and products. This shift from subsistence use to commercial trade of medicinal plants has led to an increased intensity and frequency of medicinal plant harvesting from wild habitats. Cultivation of medicinal plants is minimal in South Africa. Consequently, certain popularly traded species have become over-exploited and are now rare or extinct in the wild (e.g. Siphonochilus aethiopicus, Warburgia salutaris). This has resulted in the forced use of alternative species and a geographical shift in the harvesting pressure to previously unexploited areas.

The bark of many different forest and woodland tree species are used, although a relatively small number are in high demand and intensively used. Intense and frequent harvesting of bark from species with a high market demand often results in ring-barking of trees. The trees subsequently die, and the species become rarer over time. This practice is obviously unsustainable and will almost certainly result in the extinction of many forest and woodland tree species. As a result, many of these have become protected under the laws governing the harvesting of medicinal and other plant material in KwaZulu-Natal. These are contained in Chapter 8 of the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Act [No. 9 of 1997].

In order to address the growing need for natural forest areas to provide socio-economic benefits to surrounding communities, new national legislation (National Forest Act No. 84 of 1998) has directed the management of these areas towards a participatory approach. The "Commercial Products from the Wild Project " set the basis for a participatory forest management system in the uMzimkulu District by establishing a bark harvesters association (Sizamimphilo). This association is a legal entity that can interact with the state forestry department responsible for management of the forests in the area. Several institutional options were considered before an Association was selected as the appropriate legal vehicle. The administrative requirements of Trusts and Co-operatives were found to be too onerous for the harvesters, most of whom only have basic literacy and educational backgrounds.

A core group of bark harvesters from the uMzimkulu District selling their products at the Durban Herb Market were approached at the market end to help to solve the problem of uncontrolled bark harvesting. The harvesters were largely willing to participate in discussions around a solution. This was because the harvesters, mostly women living in the uMzimkulu District, depend almost entirely on bark harvesting and trade to sustain their livelihoods. The harvesters were aware that their operations were illegal, and many had spent nights in prison for illegal harvesting, or had had harvested material confiscated. Given that the harvesters did not have access to other economic opportunities, they continued to struggle against this conflicting and risky system of earning a living. They were therefore open to any solution that would resolve this conflict and allow them to earn a living legally. The primary challenge faced by the core group of harvesters from the uMzimkulu District was to recruit a critical mass of harvesters from the area to join in discussions, because an exercise in participatory sustainable resource utilization required that the majority of harvesters, traders and suppliers from the target district be involved in a joint natural resource management system.

In all meetings, state resource managers (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry - DWAF) were present to provide for open discussions on mutual problems, to shorten administrative procedures and to empower both groups to come to a common understanding of the problems involved. A first joint meeting was held at the Durban Herb Market to clarify the intentions and objectives. A second meeting was held at the Nzimankulu forest to identify and discuss the problems in the forest, to discuss alternatives and better harvesting techniques, and to assist the harvesters to form an association through which an agreement could be negotiated with DWAF. Additional follow-up meetings were held, both at the market and in the forest, to maintain regular communication.

With the assistance of an external facilitator, a medicinal plant harvesters association, the Sizamimphilo Association, was eventually formalized and a constitution developed. The members of Sizamimphilo participated directly in drafting the constitution. The key components of the constitution, in terms of sustainable resource management, were i) to train, uplift, educate and develop its members with the objective of increasing their business skills and profits and to enhance their harvesting skills with the express purpose of protecting the environment and the long-term sustainability of targeted species of medicinal plants; and ii) that all members sign an agreement between themselves and the Association that binds them to a set of standards, rules, objectives or laws. The Association agreed on the following rules for sustainable resource use:

* Sustainable resource harvesting practices to be implemented in the forests should contribute to the recovery and conservation of the forests.

* Bark harvesters should be able to continue with harvesting the bark resources with improved operating conditions, reduced effort and costs, minimized resource harvesting impacts, and better opportunities for the development of viable, productive small business.

* Rules for controlling resource harvesting must be simple, practical, and easy to manage, and cause minimal interference with effective harvesting.

* A constructive, collaborative relationship between DWAF (resource managers) and the Association (legal commercial bark harvesters) should facilitate: i) effective and sustainable bark harvesting; and ii) the elimination of undesirable, destructive, and illegal commercial bark harvesting from the forests.

On 30 May 2002 DWAF issued the General Licence under sections 7, 15 & 23 of National Forests Act [No. 84 of 1998] to the Sizamimphilo Association, for harvesting of bark under guidance of the management plan for natural forests in the uMzimkulu District. The management plan provides guidelines for resource harvesting, planting for alternative resources, and monitoring of resource use impacts, and stipulates the arrangements between DWAF and the Association. Interestingly, harvesters from other districts have now joined the Association, and an allied Association has been established in Pietermaritzburg.

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• Policy priorities for conservation and primary healthcare

Key issues

In order to ensure the effective conservation of African plants which have medicinal value, the recommendations recognize the importance of the following two issues:
(1) the destruction of natural habitat through agricultural expansion, logging, plantations, dam construction, urban associated development, etc.;
(2) the over-exploitation of particular plant species to satisfy demand e.g. Warburgia salutaris in South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe.

Conservation strategy

The conservation strategy for African medicinal plants must address the problem at two levels: recommendations which have socio-economic effects must be incorporated at the policy level and recommendations for conservation methodology must be addressed at the national and local levels. The recommendations cover the following areas:

(1) international and national policy;
(2) in-situ and ex-situ conservation methods;
(3) education and research.
Policy recommendations
International and national policy

Policies made at both the international and national level will have substantial effects on the success of an overall conservation strategy through the easing of wealth inequalities between nations. International policies such as trade and tariff agreements, GATT and EEC subsidized imports all aim to make trading between wealthier and poorer nations easier: in addition, international aid and financial support by such bodies as the World Bank plays an important role. At the national level, policies affecting agricultural expansion, plantations, urban and industrial developments, education, employment, healthcare, the provision of social services and funding affect the potential success of any conservation strategy.The policy making process should:

(1) recognize the international and national price paid for habitat destruction, including the loss of medicinal plant resources and a reduced quality of healthcare;

(2) ensure that commodity prices at both the national and international levels are realistic enough to reflect the cost of resource replacement;

(3) ensure that incentives exist for the sustainable management of medicinal plant resources;

(4) encourage equitable financial partnership agreements and incentive packages to conserve biological diversity; tropical zone countries with the richest biological wealth have the poorest economic wealth with which to conserve those resources (debt swaps go some way to ameliorate this discrepancy);

(5) provide the framework for greater incentives such as security of land tenure to encourage longer term investment in sustainability;

(6) recognize the relationship between social services and dependence on natural resources as a means of generating income.
Sharing the costs

International conservation agencies, in conjunction with governments and NGOs, need to determine a mechanism whereby those benefiting from the conservation of biotic diversity also contribute towards the costs of conserving it. It is essential that this applies as much to plant genetic resources as to forest products such as timber and bark or seeds for processing pharmaceutical products. Collection of plant genetic material from developing countries without legal agreements ensuring adequate payment for those resources, is a means for "devaluing" natural source areas for this material and reducing incentives for in situ conservation.

Conservation methods
It is recommended that the conservation of medicinal plants takes place within four main areas:

(1) in-situ conservation
(2) ex-situ conservation
(3) research
(4) education and training

In-situ conservation

In order to ensure that representative wild populations of vulnerable medicinal plant species are maintained, core conservation areas or other protected habitats that will allow natural processes to continue undisturbed by human activities should be designated. As a strategy to relieve the pressure on CCAs, buffer zones may be designated around the CCA wherein pro-active rural development and resource management is encouraged. Conservation agencies are already well-acquainted with the establishment of CCAs and buffer zones, equipment and infrastructure.In order to ensure the successful establishment of in-situ conservation systems, the following points are recommended:

(1) the identification and effective protection of vegetation associations which contain a high density of vulnerable medicinal plant species in regions where commercial exploitation is taking place, especially: C�te d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa Swaziland and Tanzania;

(2) the phasing out of harvesting of medicinal plants, cuttings or seed within CCAs; sustainable harvesting within CCAs is not recommended as there is a lack of money and manpower necessary to maintain the intensive management input which would be required to control harvesters.

Buffer zones and ex-situ conservation

Buffer zones

It is recommended that buffer zones are set up in conjunction with CCAs to support the harvesting of favoured species. In order to maintain future options for the supply of seed and cuttings, resource harvesting in buffer zones must be sustainable. In some cases this may be difficult as certain species may be especially vulnerable, for example Faurea macnaughtonii and Podocarpus falcatus, where the removal of patches of bark for local medicinal purposes initiates fungal and borer attack and stem heart rot.

Cultivation of favoured species within the buffer zone can make economic as well as conservation sense; Muir (1990) determined that sustainable management of pole harvesting in the Hlatikulu forest reserve in South Africa would cost US $ 105 000 annually, whereas to provide the equivalent amount of poles through establishment of woodlots would cost US $24 000. This could well apply to certain medicinal plants in high demand.

Customary restrictions that are a feature of traditional conservation practices need to be seen as an important guide to control measures in resource areas where medicinal plants are used. They indicate the forms of control to which the local user groups can relate. The following forms of control could therefore be implemented:

(1) seasonal restrictions for certain species;

(2) the prevention of up-rooting or ring-barking; and,

(3) the involvement of specialists rather than commercial gatherers.

Other customary practices, such as ensuring access to ancestral burial sites, also need to be taken into account as part of resource management.

Traditional medical practitioners

TMPs are very aware of the conservation status of local medicinal plant resources and can be influential in changing local opinion so as to limit over-exploitation. It is recommended that support is given to the formation of rural TMP associations and the self-sufficiency of TMPs, particularly in buffer zones. This might possibly be through local health services with the support of the WHO Traditional Medicine Programme. In particular, information should be disseminated to rural communities on appropriate cultivation methods for medicinal plants which are in local demand. Very little goes unnoticed in communally owned areas so that if problems arise regarding the depletion of valued local resources, TMP associations or community leaders are likely to be at least as effective as forest guards and could draw on conservation or forest guard support where necessary.

Conservation through commercial cultivation

It is recommended that there should be rapid development of alternative supply sources through cultivation in large enough quantities and at a low enough price to compete with prices obtained by gatherers of wild stocks. This will satisfy market demands, result in more secure jobs and provide fewer incentives to gather from the wild. If this does not occur, key species will disappear from the wild, thereby undermining the local medicinal resource base.

However, the practical difficulties associated with the cultivation of medicinal plants should not be underestimated (see above). The most vulnerable category of species, by their very nature, cannot be grown profitably due to their slow growth rates, especially as the land which is most likely to be available for medicinal plant cultivation is likely to be less productive agricultural land. A good example of this limitation is the 60 year old trial plot for Pterocarpus angolensis on the Mozambique coastal plain where growth on nutrient poor sands has been very low. Specific recommendations to promote large scale cultivation include:

(1) Investigations to be made into the practicality of using facilities which already exist in such institutions as government and agricultural departments or commercial timber companies, to develop stocks of scarce and popular medicinal plant species from cuttings. This would provide initial plant stocks to supply plants for cultivation to farmers. Initiation of pilot studies is recommended, with WWF and WHO as possible funding co-ordinators. Key sites are those where localized over-exploitation has already taken place, as on Inhaca Island (Mozambique) where TMP's now have to travel to the mainland to collect medicinal plants as a result of depletion on the islands (A. Maite, pers.comm.). Other possibilities include Garcinia afzellii production outside urban areas in west Africa, Warburgia salutaris and Alepidea amatymbica cultivation in Zimbabwe.

(2) Investigations into the potential for adopting recommendations already made by Wondergem et al. (1989) for applying principles drawn from experience in Thailand. These include: a project for the cultivation of medicinal plants of known efficacy which has been initiated in about 1000 villages in Thailand; the production of traditional household remedies with improved formulae in the form of compressed tablets in foil; these are distributed in Thailand to drug co-operatives through a Drug and Medical Fund.

(3) Implementation of an initial learning phase that takes account of experience gained from successes and failures of implemented woodlot schemes throughout Africa. This should include canvassing local opinion on plant shortages and perceived solutions to the problem.

(4) Management of buffer zones to include the cultivation of vulnerable medicinal plant species within the CCA. Potential pilot studies include the production of Warburgia salutaris outside Kakamega forest (Kenya), HluHluwe Game Reserve (South Africa) and Malolotja Reserve (Swaziland).

(5) Pilot production project to determine the commercial viability of growing Monanthotaxis capea in C�te d'Ivoire, Garcinia klaineana in Gabon (A.M. Louis, pers. comm.) Warburgia salutaris in South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe, and Siphonochilus aethiopicus in South Africa and Swaziland.

Botanical gardens and field gene banks

One recent report on a SADCC gene bank suggested that it might be more important for the gene bank to collect information on uses and efficacy of medicinal plants than collect material for ex-situ conservation (SIDA, 1989). This is not the case, as some popular and effective medicinal plants are threatened and need to be established in field gene banks until technology is available for storage of recalcitrant seeds. The ultimate goal of the conservation process is certainly to preserve the natural habitats of vulnerable medicinal plant species and to achieve sustainable exploitation in less vulnerable areas. However, seed and gene banks of vulnerable medicinal plant species should be maintained as precaution and backup against extinction. The plants most likely to be collected for this purpose are the slow growing species where commercial cultivation is unlikely and wild populations are jeopardized. The following measures are recommended:

(1) where seed/ gene banking occurs outside the countries of origin, it should be accompanied by legal agreements to cover control and payment for the use of those resources. This means the country of origin is entitled to benefit from the utilization of the plant by foreign organisations.

(2) Collections for seed and gene banks should be undertaken in order to select for commercially beneficial properties such as fast growth and highest levels of active ingredients for pharmaceutical use. Slow growing species with specific habitat requirements are a priority in this respect. This could be carried out through Health, Agriculture and Forestry Departments in producer countries with assistance from organizations such as the Oxford Forestry Institute.

(3) Support should be given to the establishment of ex-situ populations of threatened and endangered species in more than one botanical garden under the existing framework of the IUCN Botanical Gardens Programme.

(4) Investigations should be made into the potential for the clonal production of medicinal plants with known toxicities. This would help to standardize dosage and produce a quality end product (Gentry et al., 1987).

Other recommendations

(1) The local production of pharmaceuticals: strictly controlled local production of medicines would reduce the cost of medication whilst providing alternatives to plant based medicines. The formulation of patent or pharmaceutical medicines with the same name and purpose as their herbal counterpart has already occurred as a response to shortages of certain herbal medicines such "Bangalala Pills", "Isihlambezo" and "Special Imbiza". Sale of bottled preparations, or single doses, by herb traders is a common feature of some traditional medicinal preparations such as aphrodisiacs in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe (or "Jamu" in Indonesia).

(2) Salvage of botanical material from prospective development sites: salvage of medicinal plants should be implemented wherever practical, either for sale or cultivation. Poor infrastructure and lack of manpower in many African countries would make this impractical. Where it is practical, however, implementation would be at a local level through liaison between developers and TMPs or plant gatherers associations.

(3) Supply from sustainably managed logging: it may be possible to supplement medicinal plant supplies where bark is discarded as a by-product of logging such as in the case of Ocotea bullata in the southern Cape (South Africa). However, cases of sustainable logging are rare and where it exists it may not provide an economically viable supply of plant medicine.

(4) Feasibility studies: supply for commercial harvesting, extraction of active ingredients and local production of pharmaceuticals should be accompanied by feasibility studies to ensure an acceptable quality and efficacy of drugs, and to avoid over-exploitation of naturally occurring populations of target species.

Education and training

The conservation of medicinal plants is by necessity a long term project requiring the development of trained staff supported by organizations and a general public that is aware of the issues at stake. Improvement in national education standards is a key factor in the conservation issue which will come about only as a result of economic development in the African nations. As well as policy decisions which would influence the levels of education available, the following recommendations are made with a view to increasing public awareness of the value of medicinal plant resources:

(1) Instituting campaigns that promote the importance of habitat and medicinal plant conservation and encouraging the cultivation of medicinal plants. Target groups would include: rural communities, government decision-makers, pharmaceutical companies such as Plantecam Medicam of France which works in the Cameroon and Inverni della Beffa of Italy which works in Madagascar.

(2) Implementation of a media campaign through national radio networks to publicize information on the scarcity of popular medicinal plants.

(3) Develop an information programme for senior-decision makers in African governments to link public health with medicinal plant conservation issues.

(4) Develop a well informed campaign targeted at companies that export African wild plant material for the production of pharmaceuticals. This would include documentation of cases where habitat destruction has occurred and rural resources have been undermined, the reasons for adopting a socially and ecologically responsible approach to wild plant harvesting and the need for pricing levels to take account of resource replacement costs. Companies should also be encouraged, as a matter of urgency, to ensure that harvesting of wild stocks takes place on a sustainable basis, or to institute the commercial production of plants from selected cultivated material.

(5) Studies and research information which identify threatened medicinal plants should be circulated through the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) to regional gene banks.

(6) Information relating to adverse toxic properties in medicinal plants should be circulated particularly to TMPs and in Primary healthcare training (Akerele, 1987; Anyinam, 1987; Good, 1987; Swantz, 1984).

Research and monitoring

Research into the identification of areas of high biological diversity at the macro scale and research into the properties and usage of specific plants at the micro-scale should use the complementary skills of the TMPs and conservation biologists. Sites which are renowned for their well trained TMPs and powerful medicines and which could provide focal points for co-operative efforts include northern Pondoland and Sihangwane in South Africa and Mount Mulanje in Malawi (J. Seyani, pers. comm.). Research into medicinal plants would utilize databases such as PHARMEL and NAPRALERT. Conservation efforts and the checking of plant status could be co-ordinated where plants are being conserved for uses other than for medicinal purposes. Specific recommendations include:

(1) The initiation of a series of interactive discussions involving TMPs, commercial gatherers and market based traders to discover the perceived scarcity of species, sites of diversity, the status of popular species, the perceived problems and solutions.

(2) The initial focus should be on heavily populated regions where plant scarcities are likely to occur, yet where little is known of the extent of the problems faced by TMPs, such Rwanda and Burundi, and in high priority conservation areas such as Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. The medicinal plant research co-ordinated through the Paris based Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Technique (ACCT) provides an excellent model for coordinated research in francophone Africa.

(3) "Action research" projects at pilot-study level should be set up in selected countries to assess the economic viability and social acceptability of large scale production.

(4) An experienced African based coordinator should be appointed to implement damage assessments for the following: Okoubaka aubrevillei, Garcinia afzelii, Garcinia epunctata and Garcinia kola in west Africa; Warburgia salutaris in Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe; Prunus africana and Pausinystalia johimbe in Cameroon and Madagascar; Griffonia simplicifolia, Voacanga thourasii and Voacanga africana, also in west Africa.

(5) A short-term survey on animal species sold as traditional medicines, such as vultures, pangolins and chimpanzees, which occur in CCAs should be initiated.

(6) Studies should be initiated through the co-operative effort between African and European scientific institutions to study the genetic diversity and population biology of Okoubaka aubervillei in west Africa, Warburgia salutaris and Curtisia dentata. This can be carried out through isozyme electrophoresis. This would help to identify the degree of genetic erosion taking place in areas of over-exploitation or habitat destruction.

(7) Research work on the storage of recalcitrant seeds is already a focus of research and its importance merely needs to be stressed here.

(8) A research project, similar to the recent IUCN study of the international bulb trade, should be instituted. This would investigate the economics of the trade in plant material from developing countries for the production of pharmaceuticals and homeopathic medicines, including volumes involved and the impact of harvesting in selected sites. The study would split into two phases; phase one to be carried out by a European-based researcher with access to UNCTAD/GATT data and pharmaceutical companies; investigations would include research into pricing structures from payment to harvesters to the cost of the final product. Phase two to be field-based, investigating the ecological and social impact of the trade in study areas such as Cameroon, C�te d'Ivoire and Ghana, using species such as Prunus africana, Griffonia simplicifolia, and Pausinystalia johimbe.

(9) An investigation into possible legal contract agreements should be made, that could be attached to the use of plant genetic material and the intellectual property rights issue.

(10) Permanent plots should be set up in selected sites to monitor the status of Warburgia salutaris, Garcinia afzelii and Okoubaka aubrevillei populations and other indicator species.

(11) The success of cultivation as a conservation method should be monitored, possibly through a growers register which indicates the area of key species under cultivation.

(12) The price for favoured species might be monitored as a potential indicator of scarcity; if cultivation is not a viable option, and demand exceeds supply, then price will rise.

Financial support for People and Plants Online is provided in part by the European Union, Department for International Development (UK), the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation and the National Lottery Charities Board.

People and Plants Co-ordinator: Alan Hamilton, WWF-UK, Panda House, Weyside Park, Catteshall Lane, Godalming, Surrey GU7 1XR, UK email: ahamilton@wwfnet.org
People and Plants Online (c) WWF, UNESCO and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants/wp/wp1/policy.htm
• Mr. Behra,

Thank you for your response. I'm not sure if there is a clear picture of our mission or the openess of our request. While we are basically a botanical research organization that is conducting studies on the anatomy, chemical composition, and various physiological aspects with the intent of publishing a set of manuals dealing with this family to be used by university students, we also have other goals.

These goals are to use any material acquired for the purposes of tissue culture which will result in the dissemination of new propagules from the F1 generation of native plants. There should none to little variation in the genetics between the donor and the propagule using this proceedure. However testing will be done to verify they are the same genetically. We will however retain a few propagules which will be placed in our gardens for safekeeping. Seed from the parent plant will be tested for genetic variation and stored in our seed bank. Upon request of donor organization stage II or III plantlets will be sent for purposes of re-introduction.

We are therefore looking for not only looking for people to help locate seed donations, but also to locate people who are currently doing research on a particular specie within one of these areas that would also include other species we would furnish seed for and send us the results of their work on these species. This data would be included in our manuals and credit given to the author for his /her work and the manuals would only go to press after donated results had been published by the author. We would also furnish any related material obtained from our work or from other cooperators.

We also are looking for those who could help us line up organizations or university students to return propagated materials to their original habitats.

This should clarify the many choices available in this collaboration. We will be sending complimentary copies to universities which participate in one way or another. Other participants will have the manuals available to them at cost.

With regard to the government approval, we will be happy to send a signed Agreement on the Convention of Biological Diversity Rio de Janeiro 1992 which will satisfy most government requests.

We look forward to the opportunity to work with you in any of these capacities of your choosing.

Regards,
J.N.Covanes
Director of Research
Botresearch USA
23410 Harpergate
Spring, Texas 77373
USA
www.botresearch.com

"Sharing botanical knowledge with industry, universities, and the general public"
• Estimados Miembros de Phytomedica:

The African Studies Institute, the Center for Latin American and Caribbean
Studies (CLACS), and the Labs of Ethnobiology at the University of Georgia
will sponsor a late fall, one day roundtable (date to be chosen) focused on
traditional medicine practiced by African American, Hispanic and Native
American healers. The roundtable will bring together representatives who
serve as "keepers of traditional knowledge", people who incorporate the
tradition of using medicinal plants (and other healing traditions perhaps),
in some cases incorporating traditions brought from their root cultures but
in all cases I suspect, integrating them into the "American experience".
This roundtable will no doubt also bring into discussion social issues about
the marginalization of ethnic minorities in the U.S. healthcare system and
the need to consider traditional medicine within the overall context of
"wellness".

We are currently looking for one or more African Americans who could serve
on a panel and perhaps deliver a keynote. I am unfamiliar with the history
of medicinal plant use by African Americans and at a loss as to where to
look for such an individual. If any of you are well-versed in the history
of African American medicinal plant use and know of individuals we could
make contact with (preferably an individual from Georgia or the Southeastern
United States), please contact me through the CLACS e-mail address
<clacs@arches.uga.edu>. Many thanks!

Paul David Duncan, Program Coordinator
CLACS -- University of Georgia
Athens, GA USA

• Hi Paul

Thanks for this e-mail. The roundtable sounds great.

Could you provide me with more information about the meeting and your
university's ethnobiology programmes. For some time now we have been
focusing on African Medicinal Plants. We are the only university in
South Africa that has been accredited by government to offer graduate
programme in Herbal Sciences, with a specif focus on Indigenous
Medicinal Plants.

Many thanks.

Quinton

Quinton Johnson PhD
Professor and Chair:
Medical Biosciences
Programme Leader:
Applied Herbal Sciences
Faculty of Science
University of the Western Cape
Bellville
South Africa
7535


>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>


pduncan@uga.edu 03/19/03 06:45PM >>>
Estimados Miembros de Phytomedica:

The African Studies Institute, the Center for Latin American and
Caribbean
Studies (CLACS), and the Labs of Ethnobiology at the University of
Georgia
will sponsor a late fall, one day roundtable (date to be chosen) focused
on
traditional medicine practiced by African American, Hispanic and Native
American healers. The roundtable will bring together representatives
who
serve as "keepers of traditional knowledge", people who incorporate the
tradition of using medicinal plants (and other healing traditions
perhaps),
in some cases incorporating traditions brought from their root cultures
but
in all cases I suspect, integrating them into the "American experience".
This roundtable will no doubt also bring into discussion social issues
about
the marginalization of ethnic minorities in the U.S. healthcare system
and
the need to consider traditional medicine within the overall context of
"wellness".

We are currently looking for one or more African Americans who could
serve
on a panel and perhaps deliver a keynote. I am unfamiliar with the
history
of medicinal plant use by African Americans and at a loss as to where to
look for such an individual. If any of you are well-versed in the
history
of African American medicinal plant use and know of individuals we could
make contact with (preferably an individual from Georgia or the
Southeastern
United States), please contact me through the CLACS e-mail address
<clacs@arches.uga.edu>. Many thanks!

Paul David Duncan, Program Coordinator
CLACS -- University of Georgia
Athens, GA USA
Reply
Delete
• Show all messages in this topic
Reply to this message...

ELDIS IPR REPORTER
19 March 2003
--------------------------------------------------------------

This is our regular bulletin highlighting recent research
publications on IPR issues.

The documents are available free on the web. If you are unable
to access any of these materials online and would like to
receive a copy of a document as an email attachment, please
contact our editor at the email address given below.

NOTE: Some links in this bulletin are long (wrapping onto two
lines) and therefore may not link correctly. Copy and paste
the entire link into your browser to get to the intended page.

In this issue:
--------------------------------------------------------------
1. Genetic inventions, intellectual property rights and
licensing practices
2. Indicators of the relative importance of IPRs in developing
countries
3. India's plant variety and farmers' rights legislation:
potential impact on stakeholder access to genetic resources
4. Balancing health needs and drug research incentives
5. Capacity building for management of intellectual property
rights

Document summaries:
--------------------------------------------------------------
1. GENETIC INVENTIONS, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS AND
LICENSING PRACTICES

Author(s): Crespi. R.S.; Callan, B.

Produced by: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) (2002)

This publication is an edited and amplified version of the
rapporteur's report of the Working Party on Biotechnology
expert workshop, 'Genetic Inventions, IPR, and Licensing
Practices', held in Berlin in January 2002. Invited speakers
included practitioners from industry, government, public
research organisations (PROs) and the legal community.

The meeting aimed to inform OECD member countries about:

* The challenges raised by the proliferation of patents on
genes and gene fragments, and by the licensing strategies
of firms, research bodies and others.

* Studies and empirical data that could shed light on the
economic impact of the present system of intellectual
property (IP) protection for genetic inventions, in
particular studies that explore how patenting and licensing
practices have influenced the research process, new product
development and the clinical diffusion and use of novel
treatments

* The advantages and disadvantages of various policy
measures, within and outside the IP regime, which could be
used to address any systemic breakdowns in access to
genetic inventions.

The focus of this report is the identification of any
systematic problems encountered by researchers, firms or
clinical users of DNA patents in their attempts to gain
legal access to genetic inventions. The report also
explores solutions that might be considered remedies to
specific access problems.

The major conclusions of the workshop were that:

* The patentability of genetic inventions is not
fundamentally in question among the users of the system.

* The available evidence does not suggest a systematic
breakdown in the licensing of genetic inventions.

* The few examples used to illustrate theoretical economic
and legal concerns related to the potential for the over-
fragmentation of patent rights blocking patents uncertainty
due to dependency and abusive monopoly positions appear
anecdotal and are not supported by existing economic
studies.

* In specific areas there is evidence of problems
associated with the numbers and breadth of gene patents now
being issued.

* Many consider the rise of patents with reach-through
claims problematic and feel that this may require
government attention. Empirical studies have shown problems
arising over access to diagnostic genetic tests, although
the exact cause of these problems has not been fully
elucidated.

* The licensing system is not static but is adaptive.
Companies, governments and civil society are reacting
rapidly to deal with the increasing complexity of the
intellectual property system in this area. Policy-based
solutions to current problems will have to be able to cope
with the system's evident adaptability.

* Continued monitoring of patenting and licensing of
genetic inventions is necessary. So too is the collection
and analysis of robust economic data as a basis for action
to ensure that access does not become more problematic. More
rigorous, data-intensive studies of licensing practices in
particular are critical if policy makers are to embark on
significant reform of the present system.

[Adapted from authors text]

Available online at:
http://www.oecd.org/pdf/M00038000/M00038462.pdf

--------------------------------------------------------------
2. INDICATORS OF THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF IPRS IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES

Author(s): Lall, S.; Albaladejo, M.

Produced by: International Development Centre/Queen Elizabeth
House Library (QEH), University of Oxford (2002)

This paper focuses on the long term structural issues
concerning the impact of TRIPS on industrial and technology
development in poor countries and seeks to indicate the
potential significance of IPRs by differentiating
developing countries according to the expected impact of
stronger protection.

The paper first notes the key potential impacts of TRIPS
with the authors concluding that that, whilst stronger IPRs
are probably beneficial for countries in a position to
promote local innovation and attract the right kinds of FDI
and technology inflows, there does not seem to be a case
for applying stronger IPRs uniformly across the developing
world. And, whilst some differentiation in approach exists
already, whether or not this is sufficient to take due
account of the development needs of many countries is not
clear.

The paper then analyses data using schema based on
technological and related activity in 87 economies
(developed, transition and developing) and groups them
according to the expected effects of stronger IPRs. The
paper concludes that whilst it is not possible to pick the
countries that will lose or gain from TRIPS from the
indices used:

* There is clearly a positive correlation between IPRs,
industrial performance and technological effort. This does
not mean, however, that IPRs are causally related to growth
and development: each rises with development levels. The
causation can run both ways. Moreover, there is probably a
strong non-linearity involved. Strong IPRs are probably
beneficial beyond a certain level of industrial
sophistication, while below this level their benefits for
development are unclear.

* Most TNC assembly activity has been attracted to
developing countries without changing the national IPR
regime. This suggests that developing countries should not
need to adopt stronger IPRs in the hope of attracting
export-oriented TNCs in the short term. In the longer term,
however, countries that seek to attract high-tech
production systems may need to offer stronger IPRs to
compete thus forcing all aspirants to also have equally
strong protection.

* Countries will face different outcomes from strengthening
IPRs, not just at different levels of development but also
even at similar levels of income, depending on their
pattern of technology development and imports.

* Countries with relatively high reliance on foreign
technologies may need to strengthen IPRs to ensure
continued access (if at higher prices). For other countries,
with a need for more mature equipment, stronger IPRs would
bring no benefit.

Available online at:
http://www2.qeh.ox.ac.uk/RePEc/qeh/qehwps/qehwps85.pdf

--------------------------------------------------------------
3. INDIA'S PLANT VARIETY AND FARMERS' RIGHTS LEGISLATION:
POTENTIAL IMPACT ON STAKEHOLDER ACCESS TO GENETIC RESOURCES

Author(s): Ramanna, A.

Produced by: International Food Policy Research Institute
(IFPRI) (2003)

This paper explores the possible implications of
establishing IPR regimes that simultaneously try to protect
the rights of breeders and farmers on the utilisation and
exchange of genetic resources posing the question "Could
the attempt to distribute ownership rights to various
stakeholders pose the threat of an anti-commons, where
resources are under utilised due to multiple ownership?"

The author examines India's Protection of Plant Varieties
and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001 which tries to incorporate
the interests of various stakeholders, including private
sector breeders, public sector institutions, non-
governmental organisations and farmers, within the property
rights framework. India's Act allows four types of
varieties to be registered reflecting the interests of
actors:

* New Variety
* Extant Variety
* Essentially Derived Variety
* Farmers' Variety

The author argues that although this multiple rights system
aims to equitably distribute rights, it could pose problems
of overlapping claims and result in complicated bargaining
requirements for utilisation of varieties. This in turn
could lead to the anti-commons scenario of underutilisation
of resources.

The paper concludes that India and other developing nations,
in seeking to achieve the important goal of recognising
farmers. rights, must not overlook the need for promoting
exchange of agricultural resources. Advanced nations must
recognise that compelling developing countries to grant
breeders rights could result in systems that run counter to
their interests. Developed and developing countries must
make a concerted effort to ensure that emerging IPR regimes
do not restrict stakeholder access to genetic resources.

Available online at:
http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp96.pdf

--------------------------------------------------------------
4. BALANCING HEALTH NEEDS AND DRUG RESEARCH INCENTIVES

Author(s): Kettler, H. E.; Collins, C.

Produced by: Web of Information for Development (WIDE) (2002)

This article examines ways to improve access to essential
drugs for people in developing countries while
simultaneously retaining or creating the incentives for
pharmaceutical companies to research and develop needed new
drugs. It draws on the report commissioned by the UK
Commission on Intellectual Property Rights.

The authors conclude that the critical challenge is to find
a balance between IPR rules that allow for affordable
access to new, on-patent technologies, while continuing to
protect companies and other institutions that have invested
in research effort and demand a return on that investment.
For diseases which predominate in developing countries, and
for which no effective treatments currently exist,
affordability and access are legitimate concerns, but for
now the primary issue is how to realise new products
through R&D. Creative ways to attain the 'dynamic
innovative' opportunities of IPR are needed which must
include explicit conditions to help ensure that any
approved product of the research be affordable to the
patients in need.

This article is from the UNDP Special Unit for Technical Co-
operation's =o-operation South Journal' issue titled
'Protecting Creativity and Spreading Its Benefits: The Two
Sides of Intellectual Property Rights' available online at:

http://tcdc.undp.org/coop_south_journal/2002_dec/index.html

The article is available online at:
http://tcdc.undp.org/coop_south_journal/2002_dec/p10-
36_health_needs.pdf

--------------------------------------------------------------
5. CAPACITY BUILDING FOR MANAGEMENT OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
RIGHTS

Author(s): Leesti , M.; Pengelly, T.

Produced by: Web of Information for Development (WIDE) (2002)

Based on a background paper for the Commission on
Intellectual Property Rights (CIPR), this article looks at
strategies and structures for the management of
intellectual property rights and offers guidelines for
future improvements. It draws on several case studies in
developing countries, available literature, and interviews
with representatives from relevant international
organizations, as well as developing country IPR managers.

This article is from the UNDP Special Unit for Technical Co-
operation's 'Co-operation South Journal' issue titled
'Protecting Creativity and Spreading Its Benefits: The Two
Sides of Intellectual Property Rights' available online at:
http://tcdc.undp.org/coop_south_journal/2002_dec/index.html

The article is available online at:
http://tcdc.undp.org/coop_south_journal/2002_dec/p40-
65_capacity.pdf




----------------------------------------------------

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Email: a.stanley@ids.ac.uk

Tel: +44 1273 877330
Fax: +44 1273 621202
WWW: http://www.eldis.org/ipr


Treasures of the Caribbean:

This special exhibition, which will be launched at Natural Products Europe (6th-7th April 2003), is designed to promote a greater awareness of the botanical wealth and commercial creativity of the Caribbean herbal industry. The exhibition includes product samples, technical and commercial information on many of the Caribbean's most important herbal products as well as material on its herbal medicine and botanical heritage.

The exhibition has been designed by the British European Design Group, and organised by Denzil Phillips International, CDE Associate Consultant for Pharmaceuticals. Companies and organisation represented come from Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, St Lucia, St Vincent and Trinidad.

Treasures of the Caribbean is supported by the Centre for the Development of Enterprise, the Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural Co-operation and Full Moon Communications Ltd.

All visitors to Natural Products Europe are welcome to visit us at stand 1069.

http://www.caribbeanherbs.net/nw_tre.htm

Olive leaf extract has a very remarkable reputation for strengthening the
immune system and is indicated to help fight opportunistic infections
concurring with AIDS.
best
Kat

-----Original Message-----
From: anamed@t-online.de [mailto:anamed@t-online.de]
Sent: 24 March 2003 14:04
To: Phytomedica@yahoogroups.com
Subject: [Phytomedica] AIDS and Natural Medicine


The impact of the trade in medicinal plants

Commercial gathering of traditional medicines in large countries with small urban populations (e.g. Mozambique, Zaire and Zambia) is limited and cases of over-exploitation are rare. Harvesting by TMPs continues usually to be selective and on a small scale, and traditional conservation practices, where they exist, would be expected to be retained. In African countries with high rural population densities and small cities (e.g. Rwanda), gathering is also expected to be small scale, and where a species is popular and supplies are low due to habitat destruction and agricultural expansion, the tree will suffer a "death of a thousand cuts" rather than one-off ring-barking due to commercial harvesting

The emergence of commercial medicinal plant gatherers in response to urban demand for medicines and rural unemployment has resulted in indigenous medicinal plants being considered as an open access or common property resource instead of a resource only used by specialists. The resultant commercial, large-scale harvesting has been the most significant change, although seasonal and gender related restrictions have also altered. Rural traditional medical practitioners and the hereditary chiefs who traditionally regulate resource management practices admit that ring-barking and over-exploitation by commercial gatherers are bad practices that undermine the local resource base. In Natal (South Africa) it appears that restrictions placed by traditional community leaders and enforced by headmen and traditional community policemen have reduced commercial exploitation of local traditional medicinal plant resources. With cultural change, increased entry into the cash economy and rising unemployment however, these controls are breaking down.
More at:
http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants/wp/wp1/africa2.htm

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN WESTERN AFRICA

Since the beginning of the last century, biological resources in Western Africa have been rapidly degraded and lost through practices such as largescale clearing and burning of forest, overharvesting of plants and animals, indiscriminate use of persistent chemical pesticides, draining and filling of wetlands, destructive fishing practices, air pollution, and the conversion of protected lands to agricultural and urban development. These activities are the results of uncontrolled population growth and increasing poverty, as well as of economic policies and priorities. For example, economic pressures led to concessions being granted to foreign logging companies to exploit Western Africa's tropical moist forests and prices of cash crops, especially in the 1980s, resulted in clearing of large areas of natural habitat for agriculture. Benin, C�te d'Ivoire, Liberia, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Togo all have rates of deforestation of more than 2 per cent per year (FAO 2001). Remnants of forest vegetation are presently found in protected areas in coastal countries. The Upper Guinea forest extends over approximately 420 000 square kilometres, but estimates of existing forests suggest a loss of nearly 80 per cent of the original extent (Conservation International 1999). The remaining forest is highly fragmented and spread across national borders. The forest fragments that remain are under severe threat, mainly arising from slash-and-burn agriculture which accounts for much of the sub-region's subsistence food production.

Savannas are the dominant ecosystems in Western Africa after tropical forests. Like the forests, they also support extremely biologically diverse communities of animals and plants but persistent exploitation for food, fuelwood and other resources from the savanna has resulted in their widespread degradation. For example, the rich and extensive savanna vegetation found in the northern portions of the sub-region has been severely degraded with resultant loss of vegetation cover, fertile top soil and wild faunal species.
More at:
http://www.unep.org/aeo/088.htm


ELDIS BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION REPORTER
25 March 2003
--------------------------------------------------------------
In this issue:
--------------------------------------------------------------
1. Wildlife and poverty study (DFID)
2. The war in Iraq: general environmental implications
3. A guide to World Resources 2002-2004: decisions for the
Earth: balance, voice, and power
4. Water and the least developed countries
5. Losing livestock, losing livelihoods


Document summaries:
--------------------------------------------------------------
1. WILDLIFE AND POVERTY STUDY

Author(s): Livestock and Wildlife Advisory Group, DFID

Produced by: Department for International Development
(DFID), UK (2002)

The DFID Wildlife and Poverty Study aims to assess how and
why wildlife is important to the livelihoods of the poor
and vulnerable, review the key underlying policy and
institutional issues, investigate the synergies and trade-
offs between donor strategies and draw implications for
appropriate strategy and intervention. The Study concludes
that evidence indicates a significant dependence of poor
people on wildlife for livelihood and food security,
particularly through bushmeat and tourism.

The study goes on to identify major challenges to those
aiming to bring about both poverty reduction and
sustainable wildlife use:

* To ensure that the poor, as compared with government and
the private sector, capture a fair share of the economic
and livelihood benefits of wildlife, particularly those from
tourism.

* To ensure that where poor people depend on wild resources,
these are not overexploited at the local level, given that
wildlife is a common pool resource and requires collective
action to ensure its sustainable management.

* To address the role of wildlife as an international
public good, where the challenges are to ensure that the
costs of supplying wildlife as an international public good
are not borne excessively by the poor, that it is not
underemphasised at national policy level, and that the
supranational governance and funding mechanisms are in
place to ensure that it is not 'under-supplied'.

The authors then explore the scope for wildlife based
approaches to contribute to poverty reduction through four
themes:

* CBWM. On community-based wildlife management (CBWM)
initiatives the study finds that results have been
disappointing, particularly in terms of delivering economic
benefits to the household level. The reasons for this
included the fact that many CBWM initiatives have been led
or funded by organizations primarily in pursuit of
conservation objectives. Evidence shows that CBWM has
brought significant benefits to some remote communities,
notably through wildlife tourism, and that CBWM initiatives
have delivered significant empowerment and governance
impact. However, CBWM faces significant constraints,
including high barriers to entry for communities and high
transaction costs for donors. The extent to which
development-led CBWM, designed to deliver livelihood
benefits warrants further investigation.

* Tourism. Wildlife tourism presents a major source of
future comparative advantage for some poor countries,
including many in southern and eastern Africa. The
challenge is to test and apply mechanisms for increasing the
share of the poor particularly in terms of creating the
incentives and opportunities for improved private sector
participation. Evidence to date indicates that these
approaches may offer significant potential for impact on
poverty, and should be supported.

* Bushmeat. Bushmeat appears to be a key food and
livelihood resource for many poor people in forest and
rangeland areas, though nature of bushmeat harvesting and
consumption, and the focus of exisiting research on
conservation, makes the scale and strength of poverty
linkages less than clear. However existing evidence
suggests that the scope for sustainable management of
bushmeat is limited, except where integrated into community
forest management.

* Pro poor conservation. The challenge for pro poor
conservation is to integrate the voice and needs of poor
people into efforts to conserve wildlife as an
international public good, and to ensure that poor people in
developing countries are compensated for the costs they
incur in 'supplying' the 'international public good' aspect
of wildlife.

Whilst the lack of quantitative data makes it hard to
estimate the scale of poverty impact through each of these
four themes. From the findings, it is unlikely that the
scale of potential impact would make wildlife-based
interventions in general a priority over, say, those to
support agriculture-based livelihoods. However, the authors
argue, the scale of actual and potential impact is likely
to be high enough to warrant intervention for specific
groups of poor people, notably forest dwellers; people
living adjacent to protected areas; those in remote wildlife-
rich areas; and those in high tourism potential countries.

Finally, on policy and institutional issues governing
wildlife-poverty linkages the authors find that there is
insufficient evidence to say whether wildlife-related
interventions should be any higher or lower a priority than
other poverty reduction strategies.

Available online at:
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Pubs/files/wildlife_poverty_study.pdf

--------------------------------------------------------------
2. THE WAR IN IRAQ: GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

Author(s): Friends of the Earth

Produced by: Friends of the Earth (FOE) (2003)

This briefing note asserts that the possible damage to the
environment, to communities and above all to civilians
deserves urgent practical and moral consideration before
any decision for war is taken. The author claims that
neither the British nor the US Governments have made any
published effort to assess these risks, or to show why they
are outweighed by the alleged benefits of invasion.

This paper reviews the experiences from previous conflicts,
including the 1991 Gulf war, and assesses their impact on
the environment.

Firstly, targeting industrial and military sites such as
armaments factories and oil refineries is likely to lead to
acute chemical pollution:

* The UK Government has named nine sites in Iraq as
involved in the production of biological and chemical agents
and these are likely to be targeted

* during the 1991 war in Kuwait, Iraqi forces destroyed
more than seven hundred oil wells in Kuwait, spilling sixty
million barrels of oil. As a result: two fifths of Kuwait's
entire freshwater reserve remains contaminated to this day;
during the nine months that the wells burned, average air
temperatures fell by 10 degrees C; and the costs of the
environmental damage were estimated at $40 billion
* in the 1991 Gulf War destruction of sewage treatment
plants in Kuwait resulted in the discharge of over 50,000
cubic metres of raw sewage every day into Kuwait Bay

The paper then goes on to assess the environmental impact
of the specific weapons used by the US and the UK. Problem
weapons include the use of uranium. According to estimates
50 tonnes of uranium can cause up to half a million
additional cancer deaths over several decades.
Decontamination costs $4-5bn for every 200 hectares.

Finally, the authors argue that the war would pose a
serious threat to biodiversity. In the 1991 Gulf War,
fallout from burning oil products produced a sea surface
microlayer that was toxic to plankton and the larval stages
of marine organisms. Sea temperatures also fell.

Friends of the Earth believe that the major US motivation
for the war is to safe-guard oil reserves. They argue that
the only solution to the problem of oil dependency by
highly industrialized countries is an increased reliance on
clean and sustainable energy sources. Military action to
secure oil supplies - on the other hand - threatens to
increase environmental injustice. It would concentrate
control over resources amongst the richer over-consuming
nations, and worse, it would increase the rate of
consumption of fossil fuels, and thus emissions of climate-
changing greenhouse gases, with the most severe impacts
being felt in poorer developing nations.

Available online at:
http://www.foei.org/media/2003/ewnibriefing.html

--------------------------------------------------------------
3. A GUIDE TO WORLD RESOURCES 2002-2004: DECISIONS FOR THE
EARTH: BALANCE, VOICE, AND POWER

Author(s): WRI; UNEP; UNDP; World Bank

Produced by: World Resources Institute (WRI) (2003)

World Resources 2002-2004 focuses on the importance of good
environmental governance and explores how citizens,
government managers and business owners can foster better
environmental decisions. The report argues that better
environmental governance is one of the most direct routes
to fairer and more sustainable use of natural resources.
Decisions made with greater participation and greater
knowledge of natural systems decisions for the Earth can
help to reverse the loss of forests, the decline of soil
fertility, and the pollution of air and water that reflect
our past failures.

The report has three goals:

* To define in everyday terms what environmental governance
means and how it relates to today's environmental trends
and social conditions.

* To assess the state of environmental governance in
nations around the world via case studies reporting on the
Access Initiative's efforts to undertake a systematic study
of environmental governance indicators.

* To advance the thesis that attention to better
environmental governance is one of the most direct routes
to reversing the world's environmental decline.

World Resources 2002-2004 also presents a large collection of
national statistics on current environmental, social, and
economic trends in more than 150 countries. The report
departs from previous editions by making the full World
Resources database freely accessible and searchable online
in the companion website, EarthTrends (http://earthtrends.
wri.org - see Further Information). The EarthTrends site
also provides data tables, country profiles, maps, and
feature stories about current conditions.

Available online at:
http://pubs.wri.org/pubs_pdf.cfm?PubID=3764

--------------------------------------------------------------
4. WATER AND THE LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Author(s): Huq, S.; Reid, H.; Murray, L.

Produced by: International Institute for Environment and
Development (IIED) (2003)

This paper begins by providing background information on
least developed countries (LDCs) which are the world's 49
poorest, and comparing them with other developing countries.
The authors state that LDCs on average use per capita about
1%-2% of the water used in Canada, but despite this, they
still face formidable obstacles with regards to water, and
globalisation appears to be deepening their vulnerability.

The paper describes the reduction in water availability
brought about by dams, river modification, engineering work
and the fact that people now withdraw annually about half
of the water readily available for use from rivers. These
same factors cause losses of habitats and biodiversity,
which can be a major problem for the large numbers of
people who rely on inland fisheries for their protein intake.


The authors also discuss poor water supply and sanitation,
which lead to high rates of water-related diseases such as
cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery. This is a problem for
both surface and groundwater in many LDCs.

The authors conclude that even after the United Nations
'Water Decade' (1981 to 1990), and Safe Water 2000, more
than one billion people in the LDCs lack access to safe,
clean water, and three billion to adequate sanitation. The
conferences in Dublin (Water and Environment) and Rio
(Environment and Development) in 1992 explicitly linked
these issues to environmental concerns, and the 1997 White
Paper of the Department for International Development
(DFID) further linked water and sanitation to the goal of
poverty elimination. They call on effective national and
international policies anchored firmly in longterm
development strategies to be implemented and committed to
immediately.

Available online at:
http://www.iied.org/docs/climate/water&ldcs.pdf

--------------------------------------------------------------
5. LOSING LIVESTOCK, LOSING LIVELIHOODS

Author(s): Gura, S.; League for Pastoral Peoples

Produced by: Program on Peacekeeping Policy (POPP),
Institute of Public Policy (2003)

This article examines the reasons for the ongoing decline
in the biological diversity of domestic livestock species
and discusses the potential impacts on food security. The
author argues the importance of preserving local breeds
that are well adapted to environmental conditions and the
needs of local people whilst also providing a valuable gene
pool for the development of new commercial species. The
increasingly narrow gene pool of the commercial species
makes this ever more crucial.

This leads into a brief discussion of the rights of
traditional livestock keepers to benefit from the use of
these resources but the articles central argument is that
agricultural policy makers need not only to secure the
rights of pastoralists and communities to multiply,
exchange and develop breeds, but also to recognise their
economic, social and cultural rights. It calls for:

* Access to grazing land to receive high priority

* Traditional grazing rights to be safeguarded.

* Nature reserves, which have often removed all farming and
livestock, need to reconsider providing grazing rights to
local communities

* Development organisations need to recognise the
importance of local breeds and to focus on their sustainable
management instead of uncritically adopting exotic breeds.

Available online at:
http://www.grain.org/seedling/seed-03-01-3-en.cfm
--------------------------------------------------
See the complete list of new additions, announcements, job adverts at:
http://www.eldis.org/biodiversity/

ELDIS is funded by Danida, Sida and NORAD, and hosted by the Institute of Development Studies, Sussex, UK

Contact details:

Alan Stanley
ELDIS Programme
at the Institute of Development Studies, Sussex
Brighton BN1 9RE, UK

Email: eldis@ids.ac.uk

Tel: +44 1273 877427
Fax: +44 1273 621202
WWW: http://www.eldis.org/biodiversity

An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care

A.B. Cunningham
WWF/UNESCO/Kew People and Plants Initiative
P O Box 42
Betty's Bay 7141
South Africa

Abstract

This paper gives an overview of medicinal plant harvesting for the commercial trade in traditional medicines, and its relevance to medicinal plant conservation and the self-sufficiency of traditional medical practitioners. The most vulnerable species are popular, slow reproducing species with specific habitat requirements and a limited distribution. Although in theory sustainable use of bark, roots or whole plants used as herbal medicines is possible, the high level of input of resources in terms of money and manpower required for intensive management of slow-growing species in multiple-species systems is unlikely to be found in most African countries. Cultivation of alternative supply sources of popular, high conservation priority species outside of core conservation areas is therefore essential. Commercial cultivation of high conservation priority species is not a simple solution and at present unlikely to be a profitable exercise for most species due to slow growth rates and low prices paid for traditional medicines. These slow-growing species are a priority for ex-situ conservation and strict protection in core conservation areas. However, the high price paid for some species does make them potential new crop plants for agroforestry systems (e.g. Warburgia salutaris, Garcinia kola, G. afzellii, G. epunctata or agricultural production (e.g. Siphonochilus aethiopicus) and pilot study commercial production is warranted. The following regions are considered to be priority areas for co-operative action between health care professionals, farmers, horticulturists and conservation biologists: West Africa (Guineo-Congolese region), specifically Ghana, Nigeria and C�te d'Ivoire; East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia) and south-eastern Africa (Swaziland, South Africa). These are all rapidly urbanizing regions with a high level of endemic plant taxa. The most threatened vegetation types are Afro-montane forest, coastal forests of the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic and those in the Guineo-Congolese Region.

Introduction

This paper is based on a series of surveys undertaken in Africa during 1986-1989, in order to develop a conservation policy on the herbal medicine trade (Cunningham, 1988a, 1990, 1991, 1993). All of these drew on the local knowledge of traditional medical practitioners (TMPs) and herb traders, and concentrated on commercially sold species in setting priorities for medicinal plant conservation and resource management. From these studies, it was clear that medicinal plant species gathered for commercial purposes represent the most popular and often the most effective (physiologically or psychosomatically) herbal remedies. From historical records it is also clear that the majority of species that were popular in the past are still popular today (e.g. Erythrophleum lasianthum, Cassine transvaalensis, Alepidea amatymbica and Warburgia salutaris in southern Africa). Commercially sold species thus represent a "short-list" of medicinal plants used nationally, as many species that are used to a limited extent in rural areas are not in demand in urban areas.

In most cases, non-sustainable use of favoured species results from commercial harvesting to supply an urban demand for traditional medicines after clearing due to agricultural or urban associated development had already taken place. The widespread commercial harvesting and sale of the same genera and species throughout their distribution range is also significant (e.g. Solanum fruits, Erythrophleum bark, Abrus precatorius seeds, Myrothamnus flabellifolius stems and leaves, and Swartzia madagascariensis roots).

Herbal medicine sellers are familiar with the species which are becoming difficult to obtain (because of limited geographical distribution, habitat destruction or over-exploitation). Their insights, coupled with botanical knowledge of the plant species involved, their ecology and distribution, therefore provide an essential source of information for cost-effective surveys (Cunningham, 1991). What is needed is a common methodology applied on the basis of ethnobotanical surveys of markets, as suggested by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Medicinal Plants Specialist Group (MPSG, 1996).

Akerele (1987), Anyinam (1987), Good (1987) and others have pointed out that there is a need, through training and evaluation of effective remedies, to involve TMPs in national health care systems as they are an important and influential group involved in health care. Sustainable use of the major resource base of TMPs - the medicinal plants - is therefore essential.

A hidden economy: dynamics of the commercial trade in medicinal plants

Stimulated by high population growth rates, rapid urbanization, rural unemployment and the value placed on traditional medicines, the national and regional commercial trade in traditional medicines is now greater than at any time in the past. Due to diversity of species used and intertwined religious and socio-economic issues, sustainable use of traditional medicinal plant resources is also the most complex African resource management issue facing conservation agencies, health care professionals and resource users. International export trade also occurs, but is focused on a limited number of species. Constructive resource management and conservation action therefore has to be founded on a clear understanding of the key factors driving medicinal plant use. Where over-exploitation of medicinal plants occurs, it has arisen through three main factors:

Firstly, there has been a decline in the area of distribution of natural vegetation that was, or would have been the source of supply of traditional medicines. An extreme example of this is Monanthotaxis capea, which formerly was harvested for its aromatic leaves for a trade from C�te d'Ivoire to Ghana but is now extinct in the wild after the forest reserve in which it occurred was declassified and cleared for agriculture. In addition, supplies of herbal medicines to TMPs are affected by competing uses such as timber logging (e.g. Pericopsis elata in C�te d'Ivoire, Pterocarpus angolensis in Zambia and Malawi), commercial harvesting for export and extraction of pharmaceuticals, (e.g. Griffonia simplicifolia and Prunus africana), and use for building materials and fuel. A growing demand is thus placed on fewer resources, ultimately threatening those within conservation areas.

Secondly, Africa has the highest rate of urbanization in the world, with urban populations doubling every 14 years as cities grow at 5.1% per annum (Huntley et al., 1989). A large proportion of the urban African population consult traditional practitioners due to the widely held belief that good health, disease, success or misfortune are not chance occurrences, but are due to the action of individuals or ancestral spirits. The urban demand for traditional medicines thus generates a species-specific informal trade network which can extend across international boundaries.

Thirdly, in African countries with large urban populations, medicinal plant use has changed from being a purely specialist activity of traditional medical practitioners to one involving an informal sector group of medicinal plant gatherers. Unlike the rural TMPs who gather medicinal plant material in small quantities, the prime motivation of the commercial gatherers is an economic one. This results in disregard for traditional conservation practices where they exist and an opportunistic scramble for the last bag of bark, bulbs or roots. High rates of unemployment and low levels of formal education (and therefore a low chance of access to the formal job market) have given rise to a flood of popular medicinal plant material to supply the urban demand, keeping prices low and volumes sold high. In the case of medicinal plants harvested and exported for the pharmaceutical industry, prices are also kept low through agreements on prices that do not take resource replacement costs into account.

Urban migration of traditional medical practitioners

A high level of expectations, high unemployment rates, a psychologically stressful environment, and often crowded and unhygienic living conditions are a feature of many urban areas in Africa. Labour migrancy also creates the need to maintain relationships with wives, or find new partners in the urban environment. Under these circumstances, it is therefore not surprising that many of the traditional medicinal plant and animal material sold in urban markets has symbolic or psychosomatic value for luck in finding employment, guarding against jealousy when a person has a job whilst their peer group are unemployed, or love-charms and aphrodisiacs to keep a wife or partner. It is also not surprising that employment options for TMPs increase, as a declining medical : total population ratio is a feature of rapid urbanization. In Lagos, Nigeria, for example, the number of medical doctors increased five-fold since 1955, yet the medical doctor : total population ratio in 1975 was 1:5,000 compared to 1:2,000 in 1955, as provision of western-type medical facilities could not cope with the rapidly growing urban population (Udo, 1987).

Traditional medical practitioners are therefore attracted to urban centres where employment can be rewarding, and studies in Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Ibadan (Nigeria), Lusaka (Zambia), Kinshasa (Zaire), Kampala (Uganda) and Nairobi (Kenya) have shown that "urban centres are viable and vigorous areas of traditional medicine" (Good & Kimani, 1980). In Zimbabwe this is clearly shown by the higher ratio of TMP : total population in urban areas (1:234) compared to rural areas (1:956) (Gelfand et al., 1985). This is not always the case, however. In the rural area of Kilungu district, Kenya, rural populations of TMPs averaged 1:224 (herbalists 1:665; traditional birth attendants 1:1640 and diviners also 1:665) while in urban Mathare, the overall ratio was 1:883 (Good, 1987). Rapid urbanization and greater demand for traditional medicines result in an increase in harvesting of medicinal plants from rural areas, a depletion of the rural resource base where certain species are vulnerable to over-exploitation, and consequent problems for primary health care. The same applies to harvesting of medicinal plant material for export and processing into modern pharmaceuticals.

Sustainability and effects of harvesting

It is generally accepted that for any resource, a relationship exists between resources stock, population size and sustainable rate of harvest. Low stocks are likely to produce small sustainable yields, particularly if the target species is slow-growing and slow-reproducing. Conversely, large stocks of species with a high biomass production and short time to reproductive maturity could be expected to produce high sustainable yields, particularly if competitive interaction is reduced by "thinning". There is also a clear relationship between the part of the plant harvested, harvesting method used, and the impact of these on the plant.

Traditional medicinal plants

Demand for fast-growing species with a wide distribution, high natural population density and high percentage seed set is easily met, particularly where leaves, seeds, flowers or fruits are used. The common sale and use of medicinal plant leaves as a source of medicine in C�te d'Ivoire (and possibly other parts of West Africa) is therefore highly significant as it differs markedly from the high frequency of roots, bark or bulbs at markets in the Southern African region. Throughout Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland and particularly South Africa, herbal material that is dried (roots, bark) or has a long shelf-life (bulbs, seeds, fruits) dominates herbal medicine markets. In comparison, six sellers in Abidjan, C�te d'Ivoire, primarily sold leaf material (20-41 species), followed by roots (1-16 species), bark (0-8 species) and whole plants (0-3 species) a situation that was typical of the 111 traditional medicine sellers. The exception in C�te d'Ivoire are sellers bringing material from Burkina Faso and Mali, who sell more root and bark material. The situation with chewing stick sellers in C�te d'Ivoire and other parts of West Africa is somewhat different however, as stems and roots are the major plant parts used, with consequent higher impact on favoured species.

Despite limited information on population biology of medicinal plants, it is possible to group target plant species according to demand, plant life-form, part used, distribution and abundance (Cunningham, 1988a, 1991). Of little concern to TMPs or conservation biologists are the large category of traditional medicinal plants where there is no threat at all, and demand easily meets supply due to (a) unpopularity of the species; (b) low human population densities and low demand in relation to wild stocks; (c) lack of development of a commercial trade to urban areas, in which case only a selective harvesting is done by TMPs and not by commercial gatherers; and (d) a situation where demand is high, and commercial harvesting takes place, but supplies meet demand as the species concerned are abundant, widely distributed and the impact of harvesting is low (due to the resilience of the plant source, rapid growth and reproductive rates or the use of leaves, seeds or fruits rather than bark, roots, bulbs or the whole plant).

From a conservation viewpoint on an Africa-wide scale, there are two categories of medicinal plants that are of concern. Firstly, where slow growing species with a limited distribution are the focus of commercial gathering with demand exceeding supply. The consequent expansion of gathering to further and further afield (as incentives to collect are covered by rising prices for the target species) results in the species being endangered regionally, with widespread depletion of rural resource bases of TMPs (e.g. Warburgia salutaris in East and southern Africa; Siphonochilus aethiopicus in Swaziland and South Africa). Endemic species with a very localized distribution are a particular problem. Southern African examples of this are Ledebouria hypoxidoides, an endemic of the eastern Cape region, South Africa, where herbalists were observed removing the last bulbs from the type locality near Grahamstown (F. Venter, pers. comm.) and Mystacidium millari, also a South African endemic which is threatened due to harvesting and commercial sale as a traditional medicine in the nearby city of Durban, South Africa (Cunningham, 1988a). Secondly, where a species may be popular, but not endangered due to its widespread distribution, but where habitat change through commercial harvesting is cause for concern. Trichilia emetica and Albizia adianthifolia for example, are not a high species conservation priority in southern Africa, although they are a popular source of traditional medicines. However, ring-barking in "conserved" forests and consequent development of canopy gaps (which change forest structure and can lead to influx of invasive exotic species) is of concern in forest habitat conservation.

Both problems affect protected area management, as core conservation areas will ultimately become the focus of harvesting efforts for favoured species if they are no longer available elsewhere.

Quantities in local or national trade

Information on the quantities of plant material being harvested or sold (whether for the local trade as traditional medicines, or for export and extraction of active ingredients) is sparse. Apart from placing the quantities required from cultivation into perspective, it is also of little relevance unless expressed in terms of impact of the species concerned. In South Africa, harvesting from wild populations of certain species is on a scale that is cause for concern amongst conservation organizations and rural herbalists, and a listing of priority species is available (Cunningham, 1988a). The same concern also applies to some chewing stick sources (e.g. Garcinia afzelii in West Africa. The only quantitative data on volume of plant material sold locally is from South Africa (Cunningham, 1990, 1993; Osborne et al., 1994; Williams, 1996). The scale of this trade is such that it can have an immense impact on wild populations. Stangeria eriopus cycads collected from the wild, for example, which are sold at a rate of over 3,000 per month, are also sold in the city of Durban, South Africa as an intelezi (protective charm), posing a conservation problem which Osborne et al. (1994) have termed "an enigma of the South African situation to which it is difficult to find a solution".

Quantities in international trade
An average of 25% of prescription drugs sold in the USA during the period 1959 - 1973 contained active principles still derived from higher plants (Farnsworth & Soejarto, 1985) significantly overlapping with plant sources used in traditional medicine. Farnsworth (1988) for example, points out that of the 119 chemicals derived from higher plants which are used for modern pharmaceuticals on a global scale, 74% have similar or related uses in traditional medicine. Like the trade in traditional medicines to cities however, neither the impact of harvesting nor the cost of replacing these resources seems to have been taken into account. For this reason, even when the technology for chemical synthesis is available, it can be cheaper for pharmaceutical companies to extract the active ingredients. In the mid-1970s, for example, the cost of producing reserpine by chemical synthesis was $1.25 per g, compared to $0.75 per g by commercial extraction from Rauvolfia vomitoria roots (Oldfield, 1984). If replacement costs and sustainable use were taken into consideration, this may not be the case.

While data on the quantities of raw material harvested for export are limited, even less data are available on the environmental impact of harvesting. From what little evidence is available, it is clear, however, that large quantities of material are collected from the wild (Table 1) and that harvesting can be very destructive (Cunningham and Mbenkum, 1993). For example, Ake-Assi (pers. comm.) reports that although only fruits are required, commercial gatherers in C�te d'Ivoire chop down Griffonia simplicifolia vines and Voacanga africana and V. thouarsii trees in order to obtain the fruits. Concern has been expressed about a similar situation in Indonesia (Rifai and Kartawinata, 1991).

Sustainability and the impact of commercial harvesting

Due to the number of species involved and the limited amount of information available on biomass, primary production and demography of indigenous medicinal plants, no detailed assessment is possible of sustainable off-take from natural populations. Even if these data were available, their value would be questionable due to the intensive management inputs required for managing sustainable use of vulnerable species in cases where demand exceeds supply. What can be done is to identify the categories of medicinal plant species that are most vulnerable to over-exploitation by combining the insights of herbal medicine sellers with our knowledge of plant biology and distribution (Cunningham, 1990).

The most vulnerable species are the popular, slow-growing, slow-reproducing species with specific habitat requirements and a limited distribution. Although in theory sustainable use of bark, roots or whole plants used as herbal medicines is possible, the high levels of money and manpower required for intensive management of slow-growing species in multiple-species systems are unlikely to be found in most African countries. Cultivation of alternative supply sources of popular, high conservation priority species outside of core conservation areas is therefore essential. However, commercial cultivation of high conservation priority species is not a simple solution and, at present, unlikely to be a profitable exercise for most species due to their slow growth rates and the low prices paid for traditional medicines. These slow-growing species are a priority for ex-situ conservation and strict protection in core conservation areas. However, the high price paid for some species does make them potential new crop plants for agroforestry systems (e.g. Warburgia salutaris), Garcinia kola, G. afzelii, G. epunctata) or agricultural production (e.g. Siphonochilus aethiopicus), and pilot study commercial production is warranted. Priority regions for co-operative action between health care professionals are considered to be the rapidly urbanizing areas with a high level of endemic taxa, particularly West Africa (Guineo-Congolese region), specifically Ghana, Nigeria and C�te d'Ivoire; East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia) and south-eastern Africa (Swaziland, South Africa). Most threatened vegetation types are Afro-montane forest, coastal forests of the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic and those in the Guineo-Congolese region.

Commercial gatherers of medicinal plant material, whether for national or international trade, are poor people whose main aim is earning money, and not resource management. Unsustainably high levels of exploitation are not a new problem, although the problem has escalated in regions with large urban areas and high levels of urbanization since the 1960s. Prior to 1898, local extermination of Mondia whitei had been recorded in the Durban area of South Africa due to collection of its roots for commercial sale. By 1900, Siphonochilus natalensis (now considered synonymous with Siphonochilus aethiopicus) had disappeared from its only known localities in the Inanda and Umhloti valleys due to a trade to Lesotho (Medley-Wood & Franks, 1911). This occurred despite a traditional seasonal restriction on harvesting this species. By 1938, all that could be found of Warburgia salutaris in Natal and Zululand was "poor coppices, every year cut right down to the bottom" (Gerstner, 1938). With these few exceptions, most botanical and forestry records reflect the impact of commercial collection of Ocotea bullata bark due to the importance of this species for timber (see Cunningham, 1993). The situation would appear to be similar in Kenya, where Kokwaro (1991) records that some of the largest Warburgia salutaris and Olea capensis subsp. welwitschii trees have been completely ring-barked and have died as a result. Heavy commercial exploitation of Prunus africana trees has devastated populations in Cameroon (Cunningham & Mbenkum, 1993) and Madagascar (Walter and Rakotonirina, 1995). In Zimbabwe, due to the high demand and limited distribution of this species, the situation is worse, and all that remains of Warburgia salutaris wild populations are a few coppice shoots. In C�te d'Ivoire, Garcinia afzelii is considered threatened due to harvesting for the chewing stick trade (Ake-Assi, 1988). Destructive harvesting of Griffonia simplicifolia, Voacanga thuoarsii and V.africana fruits (for the international pharmaceutical market) through felling of the plants bearing them is also of concern. In Sapoba Forest Reserve, Nigeria, despite traditional restrictions on bark removal, Hardie (1963) observed how the trunk of a large Okoubaka aubrevillei tree (a very rare species in West Africa) "was much scarred where pieces of bark had been removed". There appears to be nothing published on the current status of this species. Botanical records are scanty, particularly for bulbous or herbaceous species, where little remains to indicate former occurrence after the plant has been removed. It would therefore be useful to carry out damage assessments for exported species such as Okoubaka aubrevillei, Garcinia afzelii and G. kola in West Africa (Ghana, C�te d'Ivoire, Nigeria) and Warburgia salutaris in Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, and assessments of the impact of Pausinystalia johimbe bark harvesting in Cameroon and Griffonia simplicifolia in Ghana.

Field observation has shown a high level of damage to Prunus africana populations in north and west Cameroon (Cunningham and Mbenkum, 1993). In South Africa, bark damage assessments using a 7-point scale (Cunningham, 1990) were carried out for key "indicator species" (medicinal plants chosen for their relatively slow growth rate). Information was also recorded on popularity as a source of traditional medicines, scarcity. Bark damage assessments confirmed most of the observations of herbalists and herb traders (Cunningham, 1988a, 1990), the exceptions being species that were scarce not because of over-exploitation, but due to limited geographical distribution in the region, such as Acacia xanthoploea and Synaptolepsis kirkii. They also demonstrate the very different situation to customary subsistence use, and this fact needs to be taken into account in legislation covering protected area management where conservation of biotic diversity is a primary objective. Although the degree of bark damage varies, the level of damage at all sites where commercial gathering takes place is high and involves mainly trees in the larger diameter size classes. What is significant is that extensive damage has taken place in State Forest, which is theoretically set aside for maintenance of habitat and species diversity (Cunningham, 1988a, 1990). In the Malowe State Forest, Transkei, South Africa, if coppice stems of less than 2cm diameter are excluded, then the level of damage to Curtisia dentata and Ocotea bullata trees encountered amounted to 51% and 57% of trees with more than half the trunk bark removed. All Warburgia salutaris trees found outside strict conservation areas in Natal were ring-barked, and many of those inside conserved areas had their bark removed as well.

Even fewer data are available on the impact of harvesting bulbs, roots, or whole plants although local depletion of Stangeria eriopsius, Gnidia kraussiana and Alepidea amatymbica is known from Natal, South Africa. There has also been a marked reduction in the number of the Afro-montane forest climber Dumasia villosa, which is sold in large quantities in herbal medicine shops (Cunningham, 1988a). In northern Namibia, Protea gauguedi populations have become locally extinct despite attempts at protection by the conservation department. It is worth noting that this has taken place in response to demands placed by a local trade in an area where urban centres are small. Commercial harvesting of Harpagophytum procumbens tubers in Botswana removed up to 66% of plants (Leloup, 1984). In Namibia, however, this species was not considered threatened as the 200 tons exported per annum only represented 2% of the total stocks (de Bruine et al. (1977) as cited by Nott, 1986).

Increasing scarcity of popular species is accompanied by an increasing prices, which in turn provide greater incentives to harvest remaining stocks. The effects of this are firstly, decreased self-sufficiency of traditional medical practitioners as local sources of favoured species decline, and secondly, higher prices which people have to pay for those species. As demand is one of the root causes of over-exploitation, the most popular and effective species are most vulnerable.

Conservation through cultivation as an alternative

Provision of an alternative to over-exploitation of traditional medicinal plants through

cultivation was suggested over 50 years ago in South Africa for scarce and effective species such as Alepidea amatymbica (Gerstner, 1938) and Warburgia salutaris (Gerstner, 1946). Until six years ago, no large scale cultivation had taken place. There are two main reasons for this, and both are applicable elsewhere in Africa: (i) a lack of institutional support for production and dissemination of key species for cultivation; and (ii) the low prices paid for traditional medicinal plants by herbal medicine traders and urban herbalists.

If cultivation is to succeed in providing an alternative supply source to improve self-sufficiency of TMPs and take harvesting pressure off wild stocks, then plants have to be produced cheaply and in large quantity. Any cultivation for meeting the urban demand will be competing with material harvested from the wild that is supplied onto the market by commercial gatherers, who have incurred no input costs for cultivation. Prices therefore increase with scarcity as the transport costs and search time increase for the long-distance trade. At present, low prices (whether for local or international pharmaceutical trade) ensure that few species can be marketed at a high enough price to make cultivation profitable. Even fewer of these are in the category most threatened by over-exploitation.

In all cases where cultivation has taken place, whether in Europe, Asia or Africa, the crops chosen are those yielding good economic returns or a high level of resource returns (e.g. multiple use species for fruits, shade and medicinal properties). These are either fast growing species, or plants where a sustainable harvest is possible (e.g. resins (Boswellia), leaves (Catha edulis)).

With few exceptions, prices paid to gatherers are very low, bearing no relation to annual sustainable off-take. In many cases, they are collected from open access, rather than limited access or privately owned sites. To make a living, commercial medicinal plant gatherers therefore "mine" rather than manage these resources. If cultivation of tree species is to be a viable proposition or an income-generating activity, the flood of cheap bark/roots "mined" from wild stocks should be reduced through better protection of conserved forests in order to bring prices to a realistic level. Alternatively, wild populations will have to decline further before cultivation becomes a viable option.

Cultivation for profit is therefore restricted to a small number of high-priced and/or fast-growing species such as Warburgia salutaris, Alepidea amatymbica, Cassia abbreviata, Haworthia limifolia and Siphonochilus aethiopicus in southern Africa and Garcinia afzelii and Monanthotaxis capea in West Africa.

Although a few of these species are threatened in the wild (e.g. Garcinia afzelii and Warburgia salutaris), low prices ensure that few slow-growing species are cultivated. With the declining economic state of many African countries, it is unlikely that subsidized production of these species will occur, and collection of seed or cuttings for establishment of field gene banks (for recalcitrant fruiting species) and seed banks must therefore be seen as an urgent priority.

Strong support and commitment are necessary if cultivation is to succeed as a means of meeting the requirements of processing plants for pharmaceuticals (whether for local consumption or export) or urban demand for chewing sticks and traditional medicinal plants. If cultivation does not take place on a large enough scale to meet demand, it merely becomes a convenient bit of "window dressing" masking the continued exploitation of wild populations. The regional demand for Scilla natalensis in Natal, South Africa is 300,000 bulbs/year, which are at least 8-10 year old from the wild. On a 6-year rotation under cultivation at the same planting densities as those used by Gentry et al. (1987) for Urginea maritima, 70 ha would be required (Cunningham, 1988a). Due to their slow growth rates, the rotational area required for tree species would be far greater, the total area being dependent on demand.

The success of cultivation also depends on the attitude of TMPs to cultivated material, and this varies from place to place. In Botswana, TMPs said that cultivated material was unacceptable, as cultivated plants did not have the power of material collected from the wild. Discussions with some 400 TMPs in South Africa over a two-year period showed general acceptance of cultivated material as an alternative. Similarly, TMPs in the Malolotja area, Swaziland accepted cultivation as a viable alternative. In both countries there is a tradition of growing succulent plant species near homesteads to ward off lightning. Similarly, in Ghana, West Africa, plants of spiritual significance such as Datura metel, Pergularia daemia, Leptadenia hastata and Scoparia dulcis are tended around villages. Therefore, although little is known about attitudes to cultivation of medicinal plants in West Africa, it is possible that TMPs would be in favour of cultivation of alternative supply sources.

A good model to follow may be the Thailand example where (i) a project for cultivation of medicinal plants of known efficacy has been initiated in about 1,000 villages (ii) traditional household remedies, with improved formulae, are produced as compressed tablets packed in foil and distributed to "drug co-operatives" set up through a Drug and Medical Project Fund in more than 45,000 villages as well as in community hospitals (Desawadi, 1988). Wondergem et al. (1989) have already drawn from the Thailand experience in making recommendations regarding primary health care in Ghana.

References

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Ake-Assi, L. 1988. Plantes m�dicinales: Quelques l�gumineuses utilis�es dans la m�decine de tradition africaine en C�te d'Ivoire. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Gardens 25: 309-313.

Akerele, O. 1987. The best of both worlds: bringing traditional medicine up to date. Soc. Sci. Med. 24: 177-181.

Anyinam, C. 1987. Availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability: four attributes of African ethnomedicine. Social Science and Medicine 25: 803-811.

Catalano, S., Ferretti, M., Marsili, A. & Morelli, I. 1984. New constituents of Prunus africana bark extract. Journal of Natural Products 47: 910.

Cunningham, A.B. 1988a. An Investigation of the Herbal Medicine Trade in Natal/KwaZulu. Investigational Report No.29, Institute of Natural Resources, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

Cunningham, A.B. 1988b. Collection of wild plant foods in Tembe Thonga society: a guide to Iron Age gathering activities? Annals of the Natal Museum 29: (2) 433-446.

Cunningham, A.B. 1990. Man and medicines: the exploitation and conservation of traditional Zulu medicinal plants. Mitteilungen aus dem Institut f�r allgemeine Botanik, Hamburg. 23: 979-990. Proceedings of the 1988 AETFAT Congress, Hamburg.

Cunningham, A.B. 1991. Development of a conservation policy on commercially exploited medicinal plants : A case study from southern Africa. In : Heywood, V., Synge, H & Akerele, O (eds). Conservation of Medicinal Plants. Cambridge, UK; Cambridge University Press. pp. 337-358.

Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African Medicinal Plants: Setting Priorities at the Interface between Conservation and Primary Health Care. Working Paper 1, WWF/UNESCO/Kew People and Plants Initiative. Paris, France; UNESCO.

Cunningham, A.B. & Mbenkum, F.T. 1993. Sustainability of harvesting Prunus africana bark in Cameroon: a medicinal plant in international trade. Working Paper 2, pp. 1-28, WWF/UNESCO/Kew People and Plants Initiative. Paris, France; UNESCO.

Desawadi, P. 1988. The conservation of medicinal plants used in primary health care in Thailand. Paper given at the International Consultation on Conservation of Medicinal Plants, 21-27 March, 1988, Chiang Mai, Thailand.

Farnsworth, N.R. 1988. Screening plants for new medicines. In: Wilson, E.O. (Ed) Biodiversity. Washington, D.C., USA; National Academy Press. pp 83-97.

Farnsworth, N.R. & Soejarto, D.D. 1985. Potential consequence of plant extinction in the United States on the current and future availability of prescription drugs. Economic Botany 39: 231-240.

Gelfand, M., Mavi, Drummond, R.B. & Ndemera, B. 1985. The Traditional Medical Practitioner in Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe; Mambo Press.

Gentry, H.S., Verbiscar, A.J. & Branigan, T.F. 1987. Red Squill (Urginea maritima, Liliaceae). Economic Botany 41: (2) 267-282.

Gerstner, J. 1938. A preliminary checklist of Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 12: 215-236.

Gerstner, J. 1939. A preliminary checklist of Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 13: 307-326.

Gerstner, J. 1946. Some factors affecting the perpetuation of our indigenous flora. Journal of South African Forestry Association 13: 4-11.

Good, C.M. 1987. Ethnomedical Systems in Africa: Patterns of Traditional Medicine in Rural and Urban Kenya. The Guildford Press, Kenya.

Good, C.M. & Kimani, V.N. 1980. Urban traditional medicine: A Nairobi case study. East African Medical Journal 57: 301-316.

Hardie, A.D.K. 1963. Okoubaka - a rare juju tree. Nigerian Field 27: (2) 70-72.

Huntley, B.R., Siegfried & Sunter, C. 1989. South African Environments into the 21st Century. Cape Town, South Africa; Human and Rousseau.

Kokwaro, J.O. 1991. Conservation of medicinal plants in Kenya. In: Heywood, V., Synge, H & Akerele, O (eds). Conservation of Medicinal Plants. Cambridge, UK; Cambridge University Press. pp.315-320.

Leloup, S. 1984. The grapple plant project: an ecophysiological approach of the influence of harvest on the population dynamics of the Grapple plant Harpagophytum procumbens DC. National Institute for Development Research and Documentation.

MPSG. 1996. Towards the "Top 50" medicinal plants. Medicinal Plants Specilaist Group Newsletter No. 2. SSC, IUCN. Gland, Switzerland; World Conservation Union.

Medley-Wood, J. & Franks, M. 1911. Kaempferia natalensis Scltr. & Schum. The Naturalist (Natal Science Society) 1: 112-115.

Nott, K. 1986. A survey of the harvesting and export of Harpagophytum procumbens and Harpagophytum zeyheri in SWA/Namibia. Unpublished Report, Etosha Ecological Institute,Okaukuejo, Namibia.

Oldfield, M. 1984. The Value of Conserving Genetic Resources. Washington, D.C., USA; US Department of Interior.

Osborne, R., Grove, A., Oh, P., Mabry, T.J., Ng, J.C. & Seawright, A.A. 1994. The magical and medicinal usage of Stangeria eriopus in South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 43: (2) 67-72.

Seme, P.M. 1989. Situation de l'Exploitation des Plantes M�dicinales au Cameroun. Centre Universitaire de Dschang, Minist�re de l'Enseignement Sup�rieur, de l"Informatique et de la Recherche Scientifique, Cameroun.

Udo, K. 1987. A Human Geography of Africa. London, UK; Longmans..

Walter , S. & Rakotonirina, J-C. R. 1995. L'exploitation de Prunus africanum � Madagascar. PCDI Zahamena et la Direction des Eaux et For�ts, Antananarivo, Madagascar.

White, F. 1983. The Vegetation of Africa. Paris, France; UNESCO. 356 pp.

Williams, V L. 1996. The Witwatersrand multi trade. Veld and Flora 82: 12-14.

Wondergem, P., Senah, K.A. & Glover, E.K. 1989. Herbal Drugs in Primary Health Care. Amsterdam, Netherlands; Royal Tropical Institute.
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ISIS Report
Herbalert to the Rescue
UK herbal medicines market stands at £240 million per year as an estimated 15 million people choose herbal remedies for everyday ailments. Figures for the global market top $60 billion per year and rising. But is demand for TM/CAM resulting in over-harvesting of the world's most effective herbal medicines? Sam Burcher reports.

A fully referenced version of this paper is posted on ISIS members' website. Full details here

The World Health Organisation estimates that 75-80% of the worlds' population use plant medicines either in part or entirely for health care. For many, plant medicines are a necessity, as costly pharmaceutical drugs are unaffordable; and for others, the desire to seek natural alternatives with few side effects is preferable to using conventional drugs. This dichotomy has led to important medicinal plants such as Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis), traditionally used for a range of immune deficiency disorders becoming the fifth most endangered species in the world. In Europe over 200 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPS) are on the endangered list.

Despite the efforts of conservation groups such as World Wildlife Fund, The World Conservation Union and Convention on Trade Endangered Species (CTES), further support is desperately needed to save plant species from becoming extinct.

David Bellamy, professor and celebrity naturalist, launched the Herbalert campaign in February 2003 for the Natural Medicines Society (Box 1) at Neal's Yard in London.

Box 1

The Natural Medicines Society was established in 1985 to protect and develop the status of alternative medicines and works to defend consumers' right to use CAM. Herbalert aims are as follows:

a.. Uphold the right to choose good quality and environmentally sound herbal products.
b.. Work with conservation organisations on the burgeoning issues of plant sustainability.
c.. To protect plants used for medicinal purposes and safeguard the livelihoods of people in areas where herbal medicine is harvested.
d.. Steer consumers to reliable and comprehensive information on the use of herbal medicine
e.. Test a range of herbal products and provide information on those that quality, labelling and value for money tests.


"I am delighted to help spearhead a campaign to put herbal medicine back where it deserves to be an important part of mainstream healing practice in the 21st Century," Bellamy said.

Clearly enthusiastic about the subject, he made an entertaining and impassioned plea to give herbal medicine its due accord. "Herbal Medicine has been the mainstay of healing across the world for over 6,000 years, the heritage of its success is manifest on the contents labels of many of today's' mainstream medicines," he said (see Box 2).

But he cautioned that over-collection of plants from the wild, with no adequately regulated backup supplies from certified farms are threatening the diverse genetic base of many key plant species.

The World Conservation Union Medicinal Plant Specialist Group has assessed 270,000 plant species over a 20-year period and identified 33, 798 as being at risk of extinction. This is the first comprehensive listing of plants on a global scale. These are catalogued in the Red List of Threatened Plants (1997). Sadly 380 plant species are registered as extinct in the wild.

In response to continual demand for MAPs and the rapid depletion of forest resources, increasing numbers of cultivated plants may hold the key to protecting some wild stocks. Epidemiological surveys show preferences by certain practitioners and consumers for wild-gathered species due to cultural reasons, such as the belief that wild plants are more medicinally powerful. And this is in part backed up by scientific studies suggesting secondary metabolites needed by plants in their natural habitats are not expressed under monoculture conditions.

However the trend is broadly moving towards a greater proportion of cultivated plants and this steady supply is endorsed by consumers, wholesalers and larger herb companies who favour the biodynamic/organic certification this method affords.

But commercialisation has an impact on rural people who depend on making money from harvesting wild plants. It is estimated that up to 30% of village income can be generated through gathering MAPs. While it may benefit the country's "top" people or GDP when outsiders invest in large scale monoculture in rural areas for export, the ecology of the community is invariably disturbed.

A counterbalance to this is small scale cultivation and home gardens. The benefits of these schemes are multitudinous. They provide a consistent income, require low economic input, provide a response to local declining stocks and supply regional markets. Home gardens increasingly focus on medicinal plant propagation, which in turn rekindles the use of traditional remedies for common ailments.

Over nine tenths of MAPs used traditionally are gathered in Third World countries. Studies of Indian MAPS show that only 20 of 400 plant species used medicinally are not from wild stocks. In China, of the 5 000 medicinal plants identified and 1 000 to 2 000 commonly used, only 20% are cultivated. These countries are the biggest users and exporters of medicinal plants worldwide. Ginseng (panax) is revered in the east and popular in the west, but becoming increasingly rare.

If the majority of MAPS continue to be harvested from the wild, then measures must be applied to conserve them locally. There should be local monitoring of abundance and distribution, assessment of annual yields and records of harvest practices. The introduction of certification schemes, for example, and forest management, would encourage less wasteful harvesting techniques, and result in better prices for locals and allow recovery time of plants and trees for future harvests. Some scientific consultation would be needed, as well as a commitment to benefit- sharing and protection of sustainable indigenous traditions.

In the United States, medicinal plants are under siege, losing over 2 400 acres of native habitat every day. As many as 29% of the most important plants discovered and harvested ceremoniously by the indigenous dwellers of North America are threatened with extinction. Currently more than 60 million Goldenseal (hydrastis canadensis) roots are harvested or wild-crafted annually, driving it closer to extinction. The yellow roots became commercial produce in the 1850s, and signs of over-harvesting were apparent as early as 1905. Three quarters of commercial harvesting takes place in the Appalachian mountain range where a number of native plants are considered "at risk". American ginseng (panax quinquifoloium), Black Cohosh (cimicifuga racemosa) and Blue Cohosh (caulophyllum thalictroides) Slippery Elm (ulmus fulva) and Echinacea (augustifolia) are all over-harvested to supply an increasing home market as well as export demands.

The UK is in the bottom group for importing MAPs and a study to investigate commercial uses of wild and traditionally managed wild plants in England and Scotland provides encouraging results. Wetlands and woodlands are harvested more extensively than heathlands, moorlands, and coastline habitats and both areas continue to be an important form of traditional land management, making a modest and sustainable contribution to rural livelihoods.

The National Institute of Medicinal Herbalists and Middlesex University degree courses in Medicinal Herbalism teach students to cultivate MAPS as part of their degree course in the university's own gardens. The course also runs a public clinic adjoining the campus for qualified practictioners who select cultivated organic MAPs from within UK for their patients.

Ongoing implementation of European Parliament Directives on Traditional Herbal Medicines and improvements of regulation and legislation of all herbal remedies will also be addressed by Herbalert. David Tredinnick MP and co-chair of the Parliamentary Group for Integrated and Complementary health said: "Herbalert can play a valuable role in providing independent information to assist consumers in choosing safe and effective herbal products and can help ensure future generations have access to appropriately regulated herbal medicines."

The Directive on Traditional Medicinal Products came from the need to market herbal medicine throughout the EU without meeting the stringent and costly licensing requirements for conventional pharmaceutical drugs. For years, herbs sold making no claims, and available in unprocessed forms were exempt from licensing. This was in accordance with the 1968 Medicines Act sanctioning the sale of herbs either in their dried state or in pill or powdered forms.

In 1965 the UK signed up to the EC Directive which called for the harmonisation of all medicines sold within the European community. Had this directive been implemented to the letter it would have effectively abolished these exemptions.

The new proposal for a Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products is widely supported by the majority of herbal interest groups. In practical terms the proposal is the culmination of a hard fought battle to retain the right for the continued availability of herbs throughout Europe that have proved their efficacy and safety over 30 years to be exempt from trials. And for herbs from outside Europe demonstrating 15 years of safe use in their country of origin and ten years safe use within the EU. Prescriptions resulting from one-to-one consultation with herbal practitioners meeting the above criteria for safety should also be exempt. Finally, herbal medicines must be produced according to Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), which entails labelling, dosage instruction and warnings of contraindications.

To date, there are few policies in place to monitor harvest and trade of medicinal plant species. By far the most important implementations of international legislation are the inclusion of MAPs in CITES and the entry into force of the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed at the World Summit in Rio 1992.

The Global Summit on Medicinal Plants takes place in Mauritius in September 2003 where "Recent Trends in Phytomedicine (herbal medicine) and Other Alternative Therapies for Human Welfare" is the central theme. Scientists, researchers and policy makers will gather to discuss key conservation plans for MAPs comprising the mainstay of traditional healthcare, alternative therapies and a quarter of conventional medicines.

The Herbalert campaign includes making representations to the European Parliament on behalf of consumers to ensure availability of good quality, sustainable, herbal remedies and the right of practitioners to prescribe as appropriate to their patients. Herbalert is also working for an amendment to the Directive for an inclusion within the proposal relating to 'sustainable use' of herbs as laid out in the aims of the Convention on Biological Diversity as this is an important, but much overlooked, factor for the future of herbal medicine.

Box2
Here are some examples of medicinal plants contributing to pharmaceutical medicine:


Curare Produces muscle relaxant used in surgery
Foxglove Extracts regulate heartbeat for those with heart conditions
Himalayan Yew Produces taxol, used to treat several forms of cancer
Rosy Periwinkle* Chemical extracts enable 4 out of 5 children with leukaemia to recover
Quinine and Artemisin Used in the treatment of Malaria
Velvet Bean Used in treatment of Parkinson's disease
Wild Yam Extracts are modified to produce oestrogen for birth control pills
Willow Inspired the development of Aspirin


[12] Scientists have successfully synthesized some plants medicines such as Aspirin, but cases such as the rosy periwinkle* are impossible to synthesize, which means the plant is the only source of the medicine.

A fully referenced version of this paper is posted on ISIS members' website. Full details here



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Ivor Hughes
www.herbdatanz.com
Reply
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CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN GHANA

Summary
A capacity building project was undertaken by six partner organisations, to support the long term conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants in Ghana.

A broad approach was followed, involving: development of medicinal plant gardens at two Botanic Gardens; an ethnobotanical survey undertaken at six villages;

production of a manual for the propagation and cultivation of medicinal plants;
development of computerised information systems at the Ghana Herbarium and Aburi Botanic Garden to allow analyses to be undertaken illustrating the status of medicinal plants in Ghana in the wild, particularly in relation to land use and protected areas.

This report provides details on the methodology followed and the status of each of these outputs and preliminary analyses of the computerised collection data. These analyses illustrate the importance of computerising plant record data held at biological institutions. They demonstrate the use to which the resulting information can be put in terms of generating material that is readily accessible and easily understood by those responsible for making decisions concerning the long term survival of one of the world's natural resources of key importance for human health.

Full details of the project, copies of project outputs and all species maps are available on CD-ROM.

More at:
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/plants/ghana/conservation_report.pdf


Resurgent enthusiasm for traditional medicine in Africa

It is now officially recognised by the World Health Organisation, that 80 percent of the people in poor economies rely on traditional medicine for their primary health care. In many countries, the ratio of orthodox medicine practitioners to the population is still very high. A recent research finding show that resurgent enthusiasm for traditional medicine is leading to over-harvesting of plants from the wild for medicinal use.
F or example in Ghana and Zambia, the ratio of orthodox medicine practitioners to the population is 1:2000 as compared to 1:200 of traditional medicine.
However, a recent WorldWide Fund for nature's research finding show that resurgent enthusiasm for traditional medicine is leading to over-harvesting of plants from the wild for medicinal use.

More at: http://allafrica.com/stories/200209090289.html
----------------------
Investigation of Medicinal Plants of Togo for Antiviral and Antimicrobial Activities

K. Anani , J.B. Hudson , C. de Souza , K. Akpagana , G.H.N. Tower , J.T. Arnason and M. Gbeassor
Université du Benin, Faculté des Sciences et Centre de Recherche et de Formation sur les Plantes Medicinales (CERFOPLAM), Lome, Togo
University of British Columbia, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Vancouver, Canada
University of British Columbia, Department of Botany, Vancouver, Canada University of Ottawa, Department of Biology, Ottawa, Canada

Methanol extracts were prepared from 19 medicinal plants of Togo and, by means of standard laboratory tests, were analysed for antiviral and antibiotic activities. Ten of the 19 showed significant antiviral activity and all but two displayed antibiotic activity. Extracts of three species, Adansonia digitata (the most potent), Conyza aegyptiaca and Palisota hirsuta, were active against all three test viruses (herpes simplex, Sindbis and poliovirus). The other seven, however, were more selective, showing activity against only one or two viruses. The antibiotic profiles varied considerably. The observation that each extract showed a distinctive permutation of target organisms suggests that different bioactive phytochemicals are present in each species. Only two of the extracts were devoid of bioactivity.

Keywords: Antimicrobial , antiviral , herpes simplex virus , medicinal plants , pollovirus , Sindbis virus ,

More at:
http://www.szp.swets.nl/szp/journals/pb381040.htm

-------------------------------

Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Project (Ethiopia)
Project Description

The Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Project seeks to initiate support for conservation, management, and sustainable utilization of medicinal plants for human and livestock healthcare in Ethiopia. The project consists of three components. The first component will support strengthening institutional capacity of the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research (IBCR), developing human resources capacity of collaborating institutions for implementing project activities, establishing a medicinal plant field gene bank, and establishing a Project Coordinating Unit. The second component will support development of methods to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative data on socio-economic benefits derived from medicinal plants used in human and livestock healthcare on a national level, ethno medical surveys to explore utilization of medicinal plants and traditional healthcare practices for prevention of HIV and mitigation of adverse impact of AIDS, and research on propagation of cultivation methods of selected commonly used medicinal plants for human and livestock. The third component funded by GEF will support in-situ conservation, management and sustainable use of medicinal plants in the Bale Mountains National Park and surrounding forests

More at: http://www.whoafro.org/dpm/rpc/publications/ench.pdf.
---------------------------
ENHANCING RESEARCH INTO TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN

THE AFRICAN REGION

A Working Document Prepared for the 21st Session of the African Advisory
Committee for Health Research and Development (AACHRD)
Port Louis, Mauritius, 22-25 April 2002

BACKGROUND

1. The forty-ninth session of the WHO Regional Committee for Africa (RC49) by its resolution AFR/RC49/R5, requested the Regional Director to support countries in carrying out research on medicinal plants and promoting their use in the health care delivery systems.

2. Furthermore, by Resolution AFR/RC50/R9 the Regional Committee urged Member States to inter alia produce evidence on safety, efficacy and quality of traditional medicines andundertake relevant research. That resolution also requested the Regional Director to strengthen WHO collaborating centres and other research institutions to carry out research and disseminate results on safety and efficacy of traditional medicines.

3.For its part, given that more than 80% of the population of the Region use traditional medicines for their primary health care needs, the 19th session of the AACHRD in 2000,recommended that the Regional Office should revitalise research on traditional medicine,particularly for common problems such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and childhood illnesses. Then, in 2001, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) Heads of State declared at
the Summit Meeting in Abuja that research on traditional medicine should be made priority.
Later in the same year the OAU Summit held in Lusaka, declared the period 2001-2010 as the decade for African Traditional Medicine.

4.
This paper presents a brief situation analysis of traditional medicine research initiatives and actions by Member States, outlines the main challenges and proposes interventions and discussion points for the purpose of enhancing research on traditional medicine in the African Region.

More at: http://www.whoafro.org/dpm/rpc/publications/ench.pdf
Reply

Resurgent enthusiasm for traditional medicine in Africa

It is now officially recognised by the World Health Organisation, that 80 percent of the people in poor economies rely on traditional medicine for their primary health care. In many countries, the ratio of orthodox medicine practitioners to the population is still very high. A recent research finding show that resurgent enthusiasm for traditional medicine is leading to over-harvesting of plants from the wild for medicinal use.
F or example in Ghana and Zambia, the ratio of orthodox medicine practitioners to the population is 1:2000 as compared to 1:200 of traditional medicine.
However, a recent WorldWide Fund for nature's research finding show that resurgent enthusiasm for traditional medicine is leading to over-harvesting of plants from the wild for medicinal use.

More at: http://allafrica.com/stories/200209090289.html
----------------------
Investigation of Medicinal Plants of Togo for Antiviral and Antimicrobial Activities

K. Anani , J.B. Hudson , C. de Souza , K. Akpagana , G.H.N. Tower , J.T. Arnason and M. Gbeassor
Université du Benin, Faculté des Sciences et Centre de Recherche et de Formation sur les Plantes Medicinales (CERFOPLAM), Lome, Togo
University of British Columbia, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Vancouver, Canada
University of British Columbia, Department of Botany, Vancouver, Canada University of Ottawa, Department of Biology, Ottawa, Canada

Methanol extracts were prepared from 19 medicinal plants of Togo and, by means of standard laboratory tests, were analysed for antiviral and antibiotic activities. Ten of the 19 showed significant antiviral activity and all but two displayed antibiotic activity. Extracts of three species, Adansonia digitata (the most potent), Conyza aegyptiaca and Palisota hirsuta, were active against all three test viruses (herpes simplex, Sindbis and poliovirus). The other seven, however, were more selective, showing activity against only one or two viruses. The antibiotic profiles varied considerably. The observation that each extract showed a distinctive permutation of target organisms suggests that different bioactive phytochemicals are present in each species. Only two of the extracts were devoid of bioactivity.

Keywords: Antimicrobial , antiviral , herpes simplex virus , medicinal plants , pollovirus , Sindbis virus ,

More at:
http://www.szp.swets.nl/szp/journals/pb381040.htm

-------------------------------

Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Project (Ethiopia)
Project Description

The Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Project seeks to initiate support for conservation, management, and sustainable utilization of medicinal plants for human and livestock healthcare in Ethiopia. The project consists of three components. The first component will support strengthening institutional capacity of the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research (IBCR), developing human resources capacity of collaborating institutions for implementing project activities, establishing a medicinal plant field gene bank, and establishing a Project Coordinating Unit. The second component will support development of methods to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative data on socio-economic benefits derived from medicinal plants used in human and livestock healthcare on a national level, ethno medical surveys to explore utilization of medicinal plants and traditional healthcare practices for prevention of HIV and mitigation of adverse impact of AIDS, and research on propagation of cultivation methods of selected commonly used medicinal plants for human and livestock. The third component funded by GEF will support in-situ conservation, management and sustainable use of medicinal plants in the Bale Mountains National Park and surrounding forests

More at: http://www.whoafro.org/dpm/rpc/publications/ench.pdf.
---------------------------
ENHANCING RESEARCH INTO TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN

THE AFRICAN REGION

A Working Document Prepared for the 21st Session of the African Advisory
Committee for Health Research and Development (AACHRD)
Port Louis, Mauritius, 22-25 April 2002

BACKGROUND

1. The forty-ninth session of the WHO Regional Committee for Africa (RC49) by its resolution AFR/RC49/R5, requested the Regional Director to support countries in carrying out research on medicinal plants and promoting their use in the health care delivery systems.

2. Furthermore, by Resolution AFR/RC50/R9 the Regional Committee urged Member States to inter alia produce evidence on safety, efficacy and quality of traditional medicines andundertake relevant research. That resolution also requested the Regional Director to strengthen WHO collaborating centres and other research institutions to carry out research and disseminate results on safety and efficacy of traditional medicines.

3.For its part, given that more than 80% of the population of the Region use traditional medicines for their primary health care needs, the 19th session of the AACHRD in 2000,recommended that the Regional Office should revitalise research on traditional medicine,particularly for common problems such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and childhood illnesses. Then, in 2001, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) Heads of State declared at
the Summit Meeting in Abuja that research on traditional medicine should be made priority.
Later in the same year the OAU Summit held in Lusaka, declared the period 2001-2010 as the decade for African Traditional Medicine.

4.
This paper presents a brief situation analysis of traditional medicine research initiatives and actions by Member States, outlines the main challenges and proposes interventions and discussion points for the purpose of enhancing research on traditional medicine in the African Region.

More at: http://www.whoafro.org/dpm/rpc/publications/ench.pdf
Reply

Herbs and the SARS virus. There are herbs that will prime an individuals immune system i.e. change the inner environment so that a virus will be unable to dock and multiply. This approach must also be reinforced by healthy nutrition.

Pleomorphism is not a new theory, however it provides a means of understanding the mutation mechanism. Bechamp obviously had something right. Given the current state of play, Pasteur was wrong.

Given the current understanding of how the immune system develops in the young child and then contrasting the policy of sticking needles in babies at a very early age. The fallacy is starkly revealed.

It is revealed in the proliferation of parent support groups for damaged children. It is revealed each time a mutated virus hops the specie barrier like a flea off a dogs back. The evidence is all around. AIDS HIV Ebola, Genetic damage, cancers and degenerative disease in great numbers.

I am looking at a carbon copy of the Phlogiston Theory. The same stupid excuses. The same closing of ranks. The same elaboration of nonsensical pronouncements. The same state of denial. It took a scientist of calibre ... Lavosier ... to unseat a bunch of fools. Who will free us from this current tyranny ?

Prevention always has been, and always will be, superior to supressing symptoms. Good (Not orthodox) nutrition and herbs as support. But then there is not much money to be made there, unless the pharmaceutical medical junta can gain control of the vitamin and mineral supplements by declaring them prescription medicine only. That move is well underway .... ah well ... not that it makes any difference but Cui Bono ?

Ivor Hughes
Auckland, New Zealand
www.herbdataNZ.com
Reply

ETC Group
News Release
April 1, 2003
www.etcgroup.org


Terminator Technology & Exorcist Technology:
New Issues and Old Controversies


The ETC Group (formerly known as RAFI) today releases "Terminator
Technology: Five Years Later," a report on new issues and controversies
surrounding the ongoing development of genetic seed sterilization - plants
genetically engineered to render sterile seeds. Terminator technology is
being developed as a biological mechanism to extinguish the right of farmers
to save and re-plant seeds from their harvest, thus creating greater
dependence on the commercial seed market.

ETC Group also reports on "Exorcist Technology," the biotech industry's
recent attempt to develop genetically modified crops that shed their foreign
DNA before harvest - with the help of chemical inducers - as a means of
silencing anti-GM critics. "Exorcist is a new technology, but the basic
strategy is the same - the biotech industry wants to shift all the burden to
the farmer and society. If gene flow is a problem, the farmer will be
obliged to apply a chemical inducer to excise the offensive transgenes..
It's the newest bag of genetic tricks to fix the biotech industry's leaky
genes and public relations problems," explains Hope Shand of ETC Group.

"We're still discovering new patent claims on Terminator, this time by
Syngenta, and now the seed industry and the US Department of Agriculture are
boldly extolling the virtues of Terminator technology for small farmers and
indigenous peoples," explains Shand.

"Even more dangerous, industry is greenwashing Terminator by promoting it
as a biosafety tool," says Jim Thomas of ETC Group. "The promotion of
Terminator seeds as a biosafety mechanism to prevent GM pollution is
biotech's Trojan Horse," explains Thomas, "If Terminator technology wins
market acceptance under the guise of biosafety, it will eventually be used
everywhere as a monopoly tool to prevent farmers from saving and re-using
seed."

Even UPOV, the international body that promotes plant breeders' rights,
concedes that Terminator has "considerable disadvantages for society." A new
memo from UPOV explains that Terminator will hinder access to genetic
resources.

If ministers of trade, agriculture and environment accept the US
government's invitation to attend the Sacramento Ministerial Conference on
Agricultural Science and Technology, June 23-25, the ETC Group recommends
that the US government be held accountable for its role in developing,
patenting and licensing Terminator technology. The meeting is sponsored by
the US Department of Agriculture (owner of 3 Terminator patents), US AID,
and the US Department of State. "If the US government plans to showcase
biotech's new and controversial agricultural technologies for the South in
the lead up to the WTO Ministerial in Canczn, it should begin by explaining
why it supports an anti-farmer, anti-diversity technology for use in the
developing world - where 1.4 billion people depend on farm-saved seeds,"
advises Silvia Ribeiro of ETC Group.

Five years later, Terminator is not dead yet. Together with hundreds of
civil society, farmers' and indigenous peoples organizations worldwide, ETC
Group concludes that the only solution is for governments to recommend a
global ban on suicide seeds.

The full text of the 10-page report on Terminator is now available:
http://www.etcgroup.org

For more information:

Silvia Ribeiro, ETC Group (Mexico) silvia@etcgroup.org
Hope Shand, ETC Group (USA) hope@etcgroup.org
Jim Thomas, ETC Group (UK) jim@etcgroup.org



The Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration, formerly RAFI, is
an international civil society organization headquartered in Canada. The ETC
group is dedicated to the advancement of cultural and ecological diversity
and human rights. www.etcgroup.org. The ETC group is also a member of the
Community Biodiversity Development and Conservation Programme (CBDC). The
CBDC is a collaborative experimental initiative involving civil society
organizations and public research institutions in 14 countries. The CBDC is
dedicated to the exploration of community-directed programmes to strengthen
the conservation and enhancement of agricultural biodiversity. The CBDC
website is www.cbdcprogram.org


Dear Dr Saraf,

well the foundation stone is obviously clean water.
Regretably most water is little more than recycled sewage with additives. My observation of water catchments and resevoirs is that they tend to be the concentration point of all of the run off that finds its way into the source of the resevoir. This slow poisoning is hardly conducive to health. Rain water carries high levels of particulates. Then there is the knotty problems faced by those who have very little and that usually has to be carried over distances.

The effects of diet on health is clearly shown in the mortality statistics for the period of food rationing in WW2 Britain. The overall health of the population showed favourable comparison with those of non rationing periods both before and after rationing.

Correct nutrition means good organically grown grains and vegetables. It means meat and dairy products that come from animals that have fed on non sprayed land with a good selection of grasses and wild herbs. It means whole foods, not processed foods.

The world has changed dramatically in the space of one life time. A social process that once took centuries, happens in years, and it shows no sign of slowing down. Our brain sequesters circa two thirds of the available resources. Those resources grow increasingly slender as we pack in denatured food to fuel the furnace. Huge piles of ash and a disposal problem.

The answer to nutrition for our starving humanity is one that can only be solved by striking out on a heart path.

The answer for those of us, that are fortunate enough to afford a good quality vegetable juicer, it is very simple. It is a series of vegetable juice cocktails which have been prepared on the day in which they are consumed. An average of 1.5 litres per day according to size of weight. When undertaking this then obviously one must shun junk food and the additives that they contain.

The first benefit of the juices is that they are concentrated. One could not possibly eat the pile of vegetables that it took to make the juice. If the vegetables are well chosen, the juice will provide full spectrum vitamins and bio-chelated minerals. This bounty is of course mediated by fresh plant enzymes. Drink the juice of the vegetables to which you are accustomed not the out of season exotica from other parts of the globe. As one proceeds then the amount of juice used will decrease once the nutritional status is normalised.

The juices themselves are very filling and generally need to be sipped rather than gulped. They are very quickly digested and easy on the digestive organs. As such they could be used with great efficacy in field and cottage hospitals as a boost for emaciated people of whatever age ... a nursing mother would pass much of that goodness onto the child.

Usually within 10 days or so one notices the appetite starts to change. The quantity and the types of food that we use, will start to change. Over a period of time the appetite becomes less morbid, and as a matter of choice, one then selects those food items that provide the nutrients one requires. This is all automatic. Nature built you ... let nature service you.

I cannot produce screeds of scientific evidence as to how and why it works. However with good reason, taken on an individual basis there are just too many variables involved. Not the least of which is those things that cannot yet be measured because of our lack of knowledge.

In such a pass the answer is experiment ... use yourself as guineapig. I assure you that your overall well being will move up a few notches. The mental fag will disperse. It is spring in the Northern hemisphere. The bitter herbs of spring. 4 or 5 well washed Taraxacum leaves juiced with the vegetables will be a support for the liver. This principle may be applied to all the culinary herbs in season.

For the individual there are no food pyramids or juggling carbohydrates and fat. We have lived for years upon denatured food produced by chemical means. We are burdened with a bizzare view of the human body and how it works. No wonder we are in a mess.

He who discards Ockhams razor will invariably succumb to phlogistonia.

Good nutrition means correcting the underlying deficiencies that lie at the root of many of the degenerative diseases. Adopt the broad spectrum approach ..... live raw vegetable juices, body wisdom, common sense ..... ahh and clean water. Use the herbs that are known to be immune system boosters but only as a tonic at the time when the seasons change.

Before I forget ... The NF from the USD 26th edition is now complete and online. I have recently posted a mongraph on the Tea Tree oils
ESSENTIAL OILS OF THE PLANT FAMILY MYRTACEAE

"TEA TREE" OILS

by A. R. PENFOLD, Director and F. R. MORRISON,* Economic Chemist,

Museum of Technology and Applied Science, Sydney, Australia.

They made be found here .. http://www.herbdatanz.com/Tea_Tree_Oils.html

Also posted is Aloes (Br) Martindales 24th .... http://www.herbdatanz.com/Aloe.html.

A monograph in progress is Opium and its preparations. Martindales 24th. Some of these remedies of the older pharmacopoeias. will be well worth visiting. Many Doctors who are out on the sharp end, in impoverished communities may find something useful. For example Drs Penfold and Morrison have some interesting things to say about TB and Tea Tree Oils.



Ivor Hughes
Auckland New Zealand
www.HerbdataNZ.com

The following article on medicinal plants can be found at:

http://www.fao.org/docrep/W7261e/W7261e00.htm

-Forest based medicines in traditional and cosmopolitan health care

A.P. van Seters

-Ethnobotanical research and traditional health care in developing countries

M. Balick and P. A. Cox

-Between a rock and a hard place: Indigenous peoples, nation states

and the multinationals

G. Dutfield

-Industrial utilisation of medicinal plants in developing countries

T. de Silva

-Trade in Medicinal Plants

S.E. Kuipers

-Medicinal plant information databases

K.K.S. Bhat

-Biodiversity - People Interface in Nepal

N. Bhattarai

-Beyond the Biodiversity Convention - the challenges facing

the bio-cultural heritage of India's medicinal plants

D. Shankar and B. Majumdar

-A biocultural medicinal plants conservation project in Sri Lanka

L. de Alwis

-Utilisation and conservation of medicinal plants in China with special reference to Atractylides lancea

S-A. He and N. Sheng

-An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation and health care

A.B. Cunningham

-Biodiversity conservation and the application of Amazonian medicinal plants in the control of malaria.

W. Milliken

-Bulgarian model for regulating the trade in plant material for medicinal and other purposes

D. Lange and M. Mladenova

-Phytomedicinal forest harvest in the United States

J. A. Duke


Dear All

My esteemed Zambian colleague raised some barbs which are too good to
leave untouched. In the phytomedicine industry, it has become
politically fashionable to regard the 'middle men' (and yes, the
sexist term is used) as exploiters of the poor indigent primary
suppliers, who resell at massive mark-ups. Here are some myths and
facts from the ground:

**

MYTH: Middle men add no value and charge a massive mark-up.

FACT: Most wholesalers of raw material survive on less than 5% nett
profit. They add value by consolidating suppliers of the same plant
from different sources, by doing quality assurance, by doing basic
pre-processing and by doing suitable packaging. They also carry
inventory to offset seasonal swings in availability and cost.

**

MYTH: Primary suppliers selling directly to manufacturers will
achieve better profit margins.

FACT: Wherever final manufacturers are in direct contact with the
primary suppliers, the price per raw unit has plummeted to barely
sustainable levels. This is because primary suppliers have no
collective bargaining clout, but instead are played off against each
other in a market that is purposefully driven into overproduction.
The 'middle men' by and large have a price-stabilising effect on the
market. They cannot afford to pay poor prices, since they then risk
receiving poor quality. Mostly, the 'middle men' have personal
relationships with their suppliers (unlike the mass buyers) leading
to bilateral loyalty and support.

**

Most of the environmentally and socially responsible manufacturers I
know prefer working through selected 'middle men'. Quite often, the
manufacturer sits in a different country and needs reliable local
wisdom in the country of origin. It makes more sense to contact one
person in a particular country, than to negotiate with five or ten
different primary suppliers, all with different lead times, quality,
packaging, etc. Unscrupulous behaviour by some middle men, past and
present, has strengthened the argument that they are all 'biopirates'
looking for a quick buck. This behaviour is, however, not a function
of their position, but their personality. They would exploit people
in any other work situation, too.

It is good to think of the poor people, but it is naive to think that
they are immune to exploitation by manufacturers, while being
susceptible to exploitation by middle men. They are the most
vulnerable to exploitation on all fronts. Exposing them to foreign
buyers almost always results in them losing the little they have. No
law can stop this, it is a matter of conscience. The industry (and
primary suppliers) would do well to stick to those 'middle men' who
have proven that they 'have heart'.

Yours in plant health

Frank
--

Frank Muller

Director: Integrow Health (Pty) Ltd
PO Box 4075, George East, 6539, South Africa
Tel: [+27] (0)44-874 1715
Cell: [+27] (0)83-300 1073
Fax: [+27] (0)44-874 1716
Email: frank.muller@integrow.co.za

For sale or swap: One slightly shop-soiled universe, with brief
flickerings of sub-standard intelligence. Will accept cash or
slightly smaller, saner version. Intelligence optional.


• Dear all

I'm unsure if this is the right forum for such a request and should this be
deemed inappropriate, I trust someone will advise me.

My company manufactur's a range of natural cosmetics called 'The Indigo
Tree' in Zimbabwe. We have two dedicated outlets in Harare and use many
other retail outlets throughout the rest of the country. The brand has
become a household name in Zim and demand is increasing all the time. To
this end, we're finding it increasingly difficult to source raw materials.
Most of our requirements come from SA and my biggest hurdle at the mo is
bulk medicinal and some culinary herbs that we use in our manufacturing
process that cannot be sourced locally.

Our usual supplier in J'burg can no longer provide quantities we require and
I'm therefore looking for a wholesaler in SA who has access to greater
quantities. For your information I attach a schedule of herbs we use and
those marked in red are required urgently. We do prefer organic, however I
appreciate this is not always possible.

<<indigo herb requirements.xls>>
I would appreciate any assistance or advice.

Regards
Tanya A Pitcher

Real Health (Pvt) Ltd
Manufacturers of:-
The Indigo Tree natural cosmetics
PO Box 743, HARARE, Zimbabwe
Unit No. 17, Harrow Road Properties, Cnr. Harrow Rd / Martin Dr., MSASA,
Harare
Telephone : (263 4) 481822/873/894/918
Facsimile : (263 4) 481965


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• reshkadesh
Message 11 of 11 , Apr 22, 2003
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Patricia ~
We are in Missouri & Arkansas. Terms we use are:
Wildcraft: Harvested from a naturally occuring source
Wild Cultivar: Initiated, nurtured and harvested as "natural culture"
Cultivar: Greenhoused/Bedded

We encourage individual niche farming, and in the environment low
impact "cooperative" culture - or "passive niche-ing" if such terms
exist. We essentially have supportive folks and a "market"
opportunity.
I think this is what you were asking:
Echinacea (purpurea/some angustifolia) has been heavily exploited, so
we do all wild cultivar and cultivar to encourage natural recovery
and meet our own needs.
Sassafras however is still in resplendant shape and if we didn't
knock it back some it would push us off of the mountain, so at this
time it is all wildcraft and demand is much lower.
All gourmet/medicinal mushrooms are cultivar and wild cultivar
because demand is very high and they reqiure a lot of care. We are
forming a helper relationship with another mushroom house in our area
that is a very successful family farm.
Dandelion is all wildcrafted, lemon balm is wild cultivar, garlic
also, mullein is wildcraft - it really depends on each plant's
presence and strength as we have pretty high conservation demands for
the preserves. We can't encourage anything but right use because
folks would just "maraude" over the forests and rip up anything they
thought others would buy. (We have taken some neighborhood flack for
being thought too conservation minded - but we feel we need to be.)
Yes - I am still counseling and teaching however I completed a health
sciences diploma in '98 and have been entirely fascinated with
indigenous and traditional medicine/practices.
I do think there is a great potential for consevation programs to
educate and establish farming - it took two decades for the mushroom
market to level in Japan. We are grass roots NFP style and won't even
seek toward such ambitions, but it is happening right now here. It is
only a matter of seeing the stengths your mechanism has and moving
toward your goals.
All programs that can show better models of right use are most
urgently needed....and they help back us up too. I grew up in
Missouri where conservation is revered, so I was surprised to learn
too many States have really weak conservation.... :(
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN AFRICA:A REGIONAL AND NATIONAL OVERVIEW

par Sven Walter, FAO, Roma.

http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/y1515b/y1515b00.htm#TopOfPage

August/Août 2001

In most African countries, non-wood forest products - or abbreviated "NWFP" - play a significant role in the livelihood of the population by providing key subsistence products and income. Examples of NWFP are foodstuff, fodder plants, medicinal plants, exudates, bushmeat, etc. Despite their importance only limited information is available on the actual socio-economic importance of NWFP as well as on the ecological impact of their exploitation.

To improve the availability of quantitative and qualitative data, country profiles on NWFP statistics have been compiled for all African countries in the framework of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme "Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries - Linking National and International Efforts" (Project GCP/INT/679/EC), a four year programme funded by the European Commission (Directorate-General Development). This report includes the standardised country profiles (which are also available on the FAO homepage) as well as a regional (Africa) and sub-regional (North, East, Southern, Central, West Africa and Insular East Africa) synthesis of the results.

The information presented has mainly been collected at FAO headquarters in Rome. For selected countries, national studies on NWFP statistics have been carried out to fill data gaps and to provide additional information. The collected data has then been validated during sub-regional workshops, which were held in the context of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme and the FAO Forestry Outlook Study for Africa (FOSA). According to the results, the most important African NWFP are:

· medicinal plants, aromatic plants, forage and cork in North Africa;

· medicinal plants, exudates, and bee products in East Africa;

· medicinal plants, edible plants, ornamental plants and living animals in Insular East Africa;

· medicinal plants, edible plants, forage and bee products in Southern Africa;

· medicinal plants, edible plants, rattan and bushmeat in Central Africa; and

· medicinal plants, edible plants, bushmeat and forage in West Africa.

The available data show that some NWFP are of high socio-economic importance in all sub-regions (medicinal and edible plants), whereas others are only of relevance in selected sub-regions (e.g. exudates in East Africa, bushmeat in Central and West Africa). Most of the NWFP are used at local level for subsistence and/or extra income generation. National and international trade in NWFP is limited to selected NWFP.

NWFP are collected in various habitats (natural forests, plantations, woodlands, shrublands, non-forest areas) and can be provided by both wild and cultivated species. Negative effects on species providing NWFP are mainly caused by inappropriate harvesting techniques and habitat degradation. The lack of sound property and ownership arrangements prevent the long-term management of NWFP on a sustainable basis.

The country profiles show that statistical information on NWFP at national level is seriously missing. Due to the scarcity and unreliability of the available data, most of the information presented has to be considered "tentative" and "preliminary", only reflecting the "top of the iceberg" within the large and heterogeneous group of NWFP.

Substantial efforts still have to be undertaken to improve the availability of data on NWFP for a better understanding of their socio-economic significance in national economies. Therefore, nationally and/or internationally agreed-upon terminologies, concepts and statistics on NWFP, combined with improved methodologies for the regular collection and analysis of statistical data on NWFP are needed.

More information at: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/y1515b/y1515b00.htm#TopO

Also:

INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF EDIBLE PLANTS

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6877e/X6877E23.htm
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From: Ilse van Cooten IVCOOTEN@NUFFIC.NL

MRC and Health Department of South Africa to probe effectiveness of traditional medicines

The Health Department and the Medical Research Council (MRC) of South Africa have embarked on a joint research initiative to test the effectiveness, safety and quality of traditional medicines. The main objective of the programme is to protect people from unscrupulous conduct and unproven medical claims within the traditional healing sector.

There still is a gap regarding the research and regulation of these products. It is believed that about 80 % of the population in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region use traditional therapies and many people have reported great benefits from their use.

At a global level, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has also stated that traditional medicines need to be evaluated for their safety and effectiveness before they can be rejected or accepted into national health policies.

According to the MRC's indigenous knowledge systems unit manager Gilbert Matsabisa, the research would give traditional healers a chance to establish good relations with the Department and the Council. 'The MRC has put in place systems to safeguard the intellectual property rights of individuals or communities of practice that may bring forward such agents for evaluation,'
Dr Matsabisa said. He said the MRC would conduct tests and evaluate such medicines and then develop the substances to be used in chronic conditions, including immune boosters, and provide information on these medicines for the general public.

Source: BuaNews, Wisane Mavasa, Pretoria, March 4, 2003.
http://allafrica.com/stories/200303040431.html

-------------------------------------------
CONFERENCES
· Intellectual Property Rights of the Traditional Healer

Third International Conference & Exhibition on Traditional Medicine
Johannesburg, South Africa: 24-25 July, 2003.

Africa First LLC of Minnesota, USA, in collaboration with the government of South Africa acting through its Ministry of Health, will host the third international conference and exhibition on traditional medicine.

The main theme of the conference is 'protecting the intellectual property rights of the traditional healer' with as sub-themes: 'the traditional healer's contribution to scientific research for the cure of Alzheimer's disease' and 'setting effective global standards for education, training, research and service provision within the circle of traditional healing'.

The purpose of this conference is to address the protection of traditional healers' rights to medical knowledge and discoveries against bio-piracy, and also to adopt global standards for education and training of traditional healers for integration into mainstream medical practice.

Participation fee: companies/institutions: USD 550; overseas participants: USD 350; residents/students: USD 100.

For further information contact: J. William Danquah, Africa First LLC, 517 Asbury Street, Suite 11, Saint Paul, MN 55104, USA.
Tel.: +1 651 646 4721. E-mail: info@africa-first.com; www.africa-first.com/3rdICTM.asp



---------------------------------------------------------------------------

PUBLICATIONS

· Biodiversity and traditional knowledge: equitable partnerships in practice

Laird, S.A. (ed.). 2002. 504 pp. ISBN 1 85383 698 2. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, UK. Price: GBP 22.45

This book analyses the present status of biodiversity research and prospecting. It studies whether indigenous people and their land, which provide genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, have an equal role in the design and implementation of research projects, and whether they experience the benefits of the research. It also sheds light on the existing international, regional and national Access and Benefit Sharing measures (ABS).

The book contains 21 case studies, and a directory of useful contacts and resources. It assembles contributions from 16 authors, and 57 case studies written by researchers and policy makers of international repute in the field of biodiversity.

The first section covers the development of ethics by professional research bodies and the process of institutional policy development, and reviews meaningful ways of 'giving back' the research results to local communities.

Section II argues for scientific councils to be set up for protected areas like national parks, and for research policies to be drafted and research proposals reviewed in such a way as to protect the interests of the park and neighbouring communities.

Section III emphasizes the need for a dynamic, participatory dialogue between all contracting parties to obtain the prior informed consent (PIC) of local people, and arrive at a memorandum of understanding (MoU).

Section IV presents the crux of the emerging concept of 'biodiversity prospecting' in sectors like pharmaceutics, crop protection, agriculture, horticulture and cosmetics and how the corporate sector should enter into contracts such as material transfer agreements (MTAs). It emphasizes the need for the establishment of a national trust fund as a means of sharing the benefits of research results with the stakeholders in a sustainable manner.

Section V looks at the development of national ABS measures. The Philippine experience proves to be very valuable.

Section VI provides guidance to all parties involved in biodiversity research and prospecting. Case studies showcase initiatives and highlight the challenges of biodiversity research and prospecting.

The book gives an insight into contemporary biodiversity research and prospecting throughout the world. It concludes that there is an emerging awareness among biodiversity-rich countries and local communities regarding the value of their genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge which has prompted them to start demanding that the benefits of research be shared. The book is very useful for policy makers at professional research bodies, institutes and in government, and for researchers, NGOs, and local community leaders.
(Review by V. Lenin, Central Horticultural Experiment Station, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, India. E-mail: velenin@yahoo.com)

Indigenous Knowledge WorldWide
Published by Nuffic
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2502 LT The Hague
The Netherlands
Tel.: +31 - 70-4260321
Fax: +31 - 70-4260329
E-mail: ik@nuffic.nl

Editorial team
Wietse Bruinsma
Ilse van Cooten
Elma Leidekker
Anna van Marrewijk

Organizational context

Nuffic's core business is to foster international cooperation in higher education and research. Activities in the field of IK take place within the Department for Human Resource and Institutional Development.

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© copyright Nuffic and contributors 2003
ISSN 1570-0305
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TANZANIA:TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

UNCTAD Expert Meeting on Systems and National Experiences for Protecting
Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices Geneva 30 October 1 November
2000 The Role of Traditional Knowledge (TK) in the National Economy: The
Importance and Scope of TK, Particularly Traditional Medicine in Tanzania
Prepared by Dr. Paulo P. Mhame National Institute for Medical Research
Dar-Es-Salaam Tanzania Disclaimer: This document is being distributed in the
form in which it was received. The views are solely those of the author.

THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE (TK) IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY: THE IMPORTANCE
AND SCOPE OF TK, PARTICULARLY TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN TANZANIA.EXPERT MEETING ON SYSTEMS AND NATIONAL EXPERIENCES FOR RPOTECTING TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE,
INNOVATIONS AND PRACTICES GENEVA, 30 OCTOBER TO 1stNOVEMBER,2000. Dr.Paulo

P.Mhame National Institute for Medical Research.P.O.BOX 9653 DAR-ES-SALAAM.
TANZANIA. Tel:022-2130770/2131864. E-mail:nimr@twiga.com

INTRODUCTION:
Traditional health practices in Tanzania have existed for a long
time even before the arrival of foreigners. People over the centuries, has
developed a wide variety of technologies with due regard to the nature and the
ecosystem. Exploration of medicinal properties of plants, extracts of animals
and marine life had created through careful observation, trial and error, a vast heritage of knowledge and expertise in different ethnic cultures and
civilizations. Most of such indigenous knowledge was handled down, through the
ages, by oral tradition. The practices in general have had to meet the need of
the local communities. In Tanzania over 60% of health seeking population have a traditional healer as the first point of contact. Likewise majority of people depends on traditional medicine for primary health care. Currently, it is estimated that there are about 75,000 traditional health practitioners in the whole country, exemplifying a ratio traditional health practitioner/peoples population as 1:400,while that of doctors/patients is 1:20,000.Of this great work force of traditional health practice, the practice constitute the main part of their daily earning. Although traditional medicine, plays a great potential in the primary health care till to date there is no effective utilization of the practice and medicinal remedies through science and technology .However,the growing recognition of traditional medicine in health care system may facilitate the change in consciousness with regard to the political economy.

TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY: Tanzania s economy depends on
agricultural exports of crops such as Coffee,Cotton,Tea,Sugar cane
products,Tobacco,Cashewnuts, Pyrethrum, Cloves, medicinal products etc. Although medicinal products(flora/fauna) are not basically recognized as an important source of economic gain to the National economy, individual people and or companies has found this to be one of the area for economic gain. Despite the worth of resources available, the sector has not fully developed due to the absence of suitable mechanism of herbal medicines control. Tanzania has many medicinal plants, but there is no systematic way of organizing the market, trade and integrate the development of medicinal plants from the production to consumption to boost export of herbal formulations.

Medicinal plants sector has a number of stakeholders having divergent interests. Each stakeholder is interested in strengthening specific aspects of his sector only ignoring the overall development. Several constraints exist due to inadequate awareness, inadequate investments in research and development, manufacturer-exporter dissonance, lack of quality and standardization norms, and lack of adequate marketing and trade informations. Lack of software industry for medicinal plants processing is also another big obstacle for further development of traditional medicines (medicinal remedies).Besides the fact that medicinal plants can be viewed as a possible bridge between sustainable economic development and affordable health care system but its development is still at rudimental stage. To date, with the free market economy the country is experiencing economic gain many people who have engaged themselves into this business.

The export of medicinal flora and fauna is growing fast with the free market
economy. Various nations are becoming important countries for the importation of Tanzanian medicinal flora and fauna. In the year 1997,1998 and 1999 Tanzania exported a total of 7,421,711Kg,5,771,022 Kg and 7,005,091 Kg worth Tanzanian Shilings 4,571,007,283;5,654,410,071 and 6,832,312,356 respectively. The export quantity and value has increased tremendously. Sea products takes about 47.48%,60.11% and 74.62% for the years 1997,1998 and 999 respectively. In 1999 for example the country exported medicinal products which was 31.63% of the total government drugs expenditure (21.6billion Shillings). The european herbal market is positively influenced by the growing interest in the complementary and alternative health care solutions. In 1999 it was estimated that the World market for remedies retail sale prices was approximately 20 billion US$.as shown in table 2: African nations together with middle east countries herbal medicines sale was just 0.19 billion US Dollars which was about 0.97%,of which Tanzania contributed very little about 0.194%.

CONCLUSION:
Traditional medicine is a medicinal practice based on individual
country s culture, tradition and customs. In Tanzania over 60% of all health
seeking population has a traditional healer as the first point of contact. Out of 75,000 traditional health practitioners over 2000 are in urban areas where they depend solely on traditional medicine practice for their daily earning. Although Tanzania has no proper regulatory mechanism to control its medicinal flora and fauna, still individual people do export these products and earn a substantial amount of money. If proper regulatory mechanisms were in place and science and technology were also used to improve the quality of the export products then the export earning would have been increased. Taking an example of China, India etc countries which has proper regulatory mechanism, high information awareness towards the importance of traditional medicine and the pharmaceutical processing industrially their export earning is high.

More at: http://www.unctad.org/trade_env/docs/tanzania.pdf.
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The politics of knowledge at the CBD

Vandana Shiva takes issue with the view, implicit in documents issued by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), that Western systems of knowledge are scientific while non-Western traditional systems are not. She calls for the adoption of a pluralistic view of knowledge systems which would respect different systems of knowledge, each with its own logic and epistemological foundation.

THE issue of indigenous knowledge in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) forces us to rethink many of the biases that have been built into the characterisation of knowledge.

Inherent in the classification and categorisation of traditional knowledge is the notion that Western knowledge traditions are scientific while non-Western traditions are unscientific and no longer valid.

There is no epistemological basis for characterising non-Western traditional knowledge as unscientific and Western knowledge as scientific. Traditional systems of knowledge have their own epistemological and scientific foundations. They differ from reductionist and Cartesian systems of Western knowledge. However, the mechanistic and reductionist assumptions on which the last few centuries of evolution of dominant Western science were based are being given up by emergent Western sciences themselves.

The idea that modern reductionist science is a description of objective reality, unprejudiced by value judgements, is being rejected increasingly on historical and philosophical grounds. It has been historically established that all knowledge, including modern scientific knowledge, is built on the use of a plurality of methodologies, and reductionism itself is only one of the scientific options available.

There is no 'scientific method'; there is no single procedure, or set of rules that underlies every piece of research and guarantees that it is scientific and, therefore, trustworthy. The idea of a universal and stable method that is an unchanging measure of adequacy and even the idea of a universal and stable rationality is as unrealistic as the idea of a universal and stable measuring instrument that measures any magnitude, no matter what the circumstances. Scientists revise their standards, their procedures, their criteria of rationality as they move along and enter new domains of research just as they revise and perhaps entirely replace their theories and their instruments as they move along and enter new domains of research (Paul Feyerband, 'Science in a Free Society: New Left Books, 1978, p10).

The emergent theories of complexity, dissipative structures and self-organisation that are replacing the reductionist paradigm of biology have more in common philosophically with traditional systems of knowledge than with Cartesian science. (Fritjof Capra, 'The Web of Life', Anchor Books, 1996).

Ignoring the latest development in the sciences the CBD Secretariat papers replicate the biases that characterise Western reductionist knowledge as scientific and fail to see the scientific basis of traditional knowledge.

Epistemologically flawed

The nomenclature of 'Scientific Knowledge' and 'Traditional Knowledge' is epistemologically flawed. It suggests that traditional knowledge is not scientific. In reality, what we have is different traditions of knowledge and traditional knowledge systems have their own scientific basis. In some cases, modern 'scientific' knowledge is highly unscientific when viewed from the perspective of forest biodiversity. For example 'scientific' forestry views non-commercial species as 'weeds'. Similarly, the introduction of alien species such as eucalyptus guided by 'scientific forestry' principles can lead to the destruction of forest biodiversity. These systems of forestry science lack an ecological perspective, which many systems of traditional knowledge have. The 'ecological perspective' and 'scientific' status have in the report been disassociated from traditional knowledge, disrespecting diverse knowledge traditions and falsifying their characteristics.

The idea of split and hierarchy between 'scientific' and 'traditional' knowledge should be rejected. Such a division cannot be epistemologically justified.

In the note on 'Traditional Related Knowledge', this false division is reintroduced in the Section on 'The nature of traditional knowledge'. This section identifies 'traditional' as local, in contrast to 'cosmopolitan' and 'Western' knowledge. This suggests all traditional knowledge has only localised relevance and existence.

However, major traditions such as systems of Ayurvedic knowledge which depend on a deep knowledge of medicinal plant biodiversity are also widely practised and are not restricted to small localities. The documents are therefore riddled with a Eurocentric bias in the analysis of knowledge, a bias which is particularly inappropriate in a subject matter dealing with cultural and biological diversity.

The CBD should avoid antiquated and false characterisations of traditional vs modern, unscientific vs scientific, non-Western vs Western, local vs cosmopolitan. The appropriate epistemological framework for the CBD is the recognition of diverse systems of knowledge as a pluralistic array rather than as a hierarchy. The CBD documents however falsely perpetuate an hierarchy.

Pluralism Vs Hierarchy of Knowledge Systems

Diversity and pluralism are the characteristics of the Indian environment and Indian society. We have a rich biodiversity of plants for food and medicine. This agricultural diversity and diversity of medicinal plants have in turn given rise to a rich plurality of knowledge systems in agriculture and medicine.

However, under colonial influence our biological and intellectual heritage was devalued. The priorities of scientific development and Research and Development efforts guided by a Western bias transformed the plurality of knowledge systems into a hierarchy of knowledge systems.

With knowledge plurality mutating into knowledge hierarchy, a horizontal ordering of diverse but equally valid and diverse systems is converted into a vertical ordering of unequal systems, with the epistemological foundations of the system being imposed on others to invalidate them.

Western systems of knowledge in agriculture and medicine were defined as the only scientific system. Indigenous systems of knowledge were defined as inferior, and in fact as unscientific. Thus, instead of strengthening research on safe and sustainable plant-based pesticides such as neem and pongamia, we focused exclusively on the development and promotion of hazardous and non-sustainable chemical pesticides such as DDT and Sevin. The use of DDT causes millions of deaths each year and has increased the occurrence of pests 12,000-fold. The manufacture of Sevin at the Union Carbide Plant in Bhopal led to the disaster which killed thousands and has disabled more than 400,000 people.

As the realisation of the ecological failure of the chemical route to pest control grows, the use of plant-based pesticides is becoming popular in the industrialised world. Corporations that have promoted the use of chemicals are now looking for biological options. In the search for new markets and control over the biodiversity base for the production of biopesticides, chemicals, TNCs like W R Grace are claiming IPRs on neem-based biopesticides.

The experience with agrichemi-cals is replicated in the field of drugs and medicines. Indigenous systems of medicine and the biodiversity of medicinal plants were totally neglected in our scientific research and health policy which focused exclusively on the Western allopathic system and on technology transfer from the Western pharmaceutical industry. Thus the health and pharmaceutical budget was heavily weighted in favour of the development and dissemination of the Western allopathic system. In spite of lack of official support, indigenous medical systems are based on over 7,000 species of medicinal plants and on 15,000 medicines of herbal formulations in different systems. The Ayurvedic texts refer to 1,400 plants, the Unani texts to 342, the Siddha system to 328. Homeopathy uses 570, of which approximately 100 are Indian plants.

The economic value of medicinal plants to 100 million rural households is immeasurable.

As a result of increasing public awareness of side-effects of hazardous drugs, and the rise of strains resistant to antibiotics, the Western pharmaceutical industry is increasingly turning to the plant-based system of Indian and Chinese medicine. Patenting of drugs derived from indigenous systems of medicine has started to take epidemic proportions. The current value of the world market for medicinal plants from leads given by indigenous and local communities is estimated to be $43 billion. Using traditional knowledge increased the efficiency of screening plants for medical properties by more than 400%.

The failures and non-sustainability of the chemical route to agriculture and health care provide an opportunity to re-evaluate knowledge systems, and move from the false hierarchy of these systems to a plurality. Such a pluralistic view of knowledge systems would imply respect for the different systems in their own logic and in their own epistemological foundations. It would also mean that one system (viz. the Western) does not have to serve as the measure of scientific adequacy for all systems, and diverse systems do not need to be reduced to the language and logic of Western knowledge systems.

The integrity of our biological intellectual heritage can be protected only in such a pluralistic perspective. A hierarchial perspective will continue to project the Western paradigm as scientifically superior in spite of its current failures in the context of sustainability of health care and nutrition. The assumption of hierarchy is also the underlying basis for legitimising piracy as invention.

This phenomena of 'biopiracy' and 'intellectual piracy' in which Western commercial interests claim products and innovations derived from and currently used by indigenous knowledge traditions as their 'intellectual property' protected through 'intellectual property rights' like patents have emerged as a result of the devaluation and hence the invisibility of indigenous systems of knowledge and the lack of protection for these systems. This devaluation is linked to the imposition of the reductionist methods of Western science to the non-reductionist approaches of indigenous knowledge systems. Further since Western-style IPRs systems are biased towards Western knowledge systems which reduce biodiversity to its chemical or genetic structures, the indigenous systems get no protection, but piracy of these systems is protected.

In the absence of a protection system for biodiversity and indigenous knowledge systems, and with the universalisation of Western-style IPRs regimes, such intellectual and biological piracy will grow.

Vandana Shiva is a scientist and activist. She is also a contributing editor for Third World Resurgence.

More at:
http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/cbd-cn.htm
Reply

I have to agree with much of what Verdana Shiva has written.

"There is no epistemological basis for characterising non-Western traditional knowledge as unscientific and Western knowledge as scientific. Traditional systems of knowledge have their own epistemological and scientific foundations. They differ from reductionist and Cartesian systems of Western knowledge. However, the mechanistic and reductionist assumptions on which the last few centuries of evolution of dominant Western science were based are being given up by emergent Western sciences themselves."

If we wish to see where medical science it taking us then it is only necessary to see where we have been. The past 100 years has been a blundering from one disaster to the next. Much of this has been orchestrated by the Pharmagedon Industry, which includes little Pharmageddon (the manufacturers of standardised plant medicines) It has been responsible of the abandonment of the Western medical tradition based on Hippocratic principles. A system of thought based on eugenics is an evil of the first order. It is in full flower. We may see that pregnant women, children, the elderly, prisoners and the mentally ill are freely experimented on. Clinical trials are falsified and with the approval of corrupt officials, and yet another disaster is launched. Cui Bono ?

There are 4 major schools of natural medicine, they are in alphabetical order, Chinese, Indian, Islamic and Western. Each of these systems are rooted in Alchemy. As such they share in common a philosophy of Vitalism. Spagyric medicine shares a common methodology of preparation with the other 3 schools. The major difference is in the plant families used for similar conditions. This can be accounted for by racial idiosyncrasy.

SARS is Natures warning shot. Pleomorphism explains the situation nicely. The mutations can occur within hours, how long does it take to produce a vaccine ?

What distinguishes the traditional systems from the mainstream orthodox, is that traditional systems seek cooperation with nature. Orthodoxy seeks to combat nature rather than cooperate. The Planet is sick, the waters air and land have been poisoned. As a specie we are embedded in the environment, what happens to the environment happens to us all. Nature does not recognise social or economic privilege. However I do believe that Nature recognises homoeostasis as a neccesity. It would appear that every 13000 years or so, the Planet undergoes a mass extinction of mega fauna, presumably they had become uneccessary in the greater scheme of things. Are we next ?

Ivor Hughes
www.herbdataNZ.com
Reply


<<UPDATE: Injunction Filed Against HHA and Dr. McCain
ARKANSAS ATTORNEY GENERAL ATTEMPTS
TO CLOSE DOWN HERBAL HEALER WITH INJUNCTION
April 4th, Arkansas Attorney Generals office issued a very surprising
petition for Injunction against all defendants in this lawsuit. Court
date on this is next Wednesday April 30th. They are asking the judge
to close us down, because we represent an immediate threat and in
their words "Marijah McCain and Herbal Healer Academy commonly and
frequently suggests, recommend, prescribe and administer certain
forms of healing for the intended relief, or cure of certain physical
ailments in violation of the ARK. CODE ANN. 17-95-402, et seq." (This
is the medical doctor laws, which we should not even fall under,
especially if we have agreed to remove the term doctor as you will
see below.) They go on to say, "Marijah McCain and the Herbal Healer
Academy represent a substantial danger to the health, welfare, and
safety of the public and irreparable harm will occur if these
defendants are not immediately enjoined from these complained
activities." The injunction to close the company down is so
outrageous. Again, they have no customer complaints or evidence that
HHA or Marijah McCain has harmed or injured anyone. The fact is no
one has ever been harmed by HHA or Marijah McCain since 1988 when we
started. Not only that, thousands of people depend on this type of
quality advice from a skilled alternative practitioner.

Our lawyers have been working with the AG's office to come up with a
reasonable out of court settlement, but so far it has not happened.
So far the Arkansas Attorney General has asked for the removal of the
term doctor on everything, which we had agreed to. They have demanded
a large cash donation to the Consumer Education Fund, that all our
catalogs be reprinted and Internet site be changed, and they have
also stated in their out of court settlement quote, "That McCain and
HHA shall not suggest, recommend, prescribe, or administer treatment,
or healing for the intended relief, or cure of physical diseases,
ailments, injuries, or conditions."

I simply can not agree to that, because that is what I do as a
Naturopath. I do suggest and recommend natural health care
supplements. I have been trained in many modalities of alternative
healing and I have the documentation to back it up. Folks, if I sign
this, I would be putting myself out of business, as there would be no
catalog, no newsletters, no Internet information for you to read. I
need your help. I need you to write, call and FAX as many of these
people as you can and tell them that the charges should be dropped
against us and we should be allowed to continue on with our business,
especially since we are willing to comply with the removal of the
term doctor.

We have even been getting harassing phone calls from people trying to
scare us. One came in today saying that next week they were going to
start issuing warrants for arrests and that the ANMA was being closed
down (which is a blatant lie) Folks, we are being unfairly targeted,
please help as best you can. We also would appreciate your prayers
for us, as the stress is unreal and we are very upset. Also, if you
will, feel free to post this to your boards and send it to as many
people you can.

Stephen and Marijah McCain
Herbal Healer Academy - since 1988
http://www.herbalhealer.com

Here's who to contact!
Herbal Healer - Case number is CV 2002 008480

MIKE BEEBE: ARKANSAS ATTORNEY GENERAL (He is new to this case - It
was Mark Pryor who started it, but left. Mike Beebe may not have read
any letters some of you sent in the past so please send them again.
Attorney General's Office - Mike Beebe
323 Center Street, Suite 200
Little Rock, Arkansas 72201
Phone: (501) 682-2007
Fax: (501) 682-8084
Toll Free: 1-800- 482-8982
e-mail Attorney General's Office:
oag@ag.state.ar.us
Attorney General Website:
http://www.ag.state.ar.us/

LAMAR DAVIS: Assistant Attorney General. Spokesman in this case for
the AG. and the person who has been working with HHA lawyers.
LAMAR DAVIS'S E-MAIL ADDRESS:
lamard@ag.state.ar.us

Public Protection Division
323 Center Street, Suite 200
Little Rock, Arkansas 72201
Phone: (501) 682-2341
Fax: (501) 682-8118
Toll Free: (800) 482-8982

HON. BARRY SIMS - Circuit Judge for the 7th Division, Palaski County,
Arkansas (Little Rock) that will be hearing the case and decide
whether to issue the injunction on Wednesday April 30th.
Phone: 501-340-5630
FAX - 501-340-8872
401 West Markham, Suite 220
Little Rock, AR. 72560

ARKANSAS GOVERNOR - MIKE HUCKABEE
Mailing Address: Governor's Office
State Capitol Rm 250, Little Rock, Arkansas 72201
Governor's Office Phone - 501-682-2345
FAX: 501-682-3597
Website:
http://www.state.ar.us/governor/governor.html
You can e-mail from the website using the form.
No direct e-mail address given.
Reply

Dear all,
First of all, let me introduce myself. I am an agricultural engineer specialized in organic farming and rural development. Currently, I am working in Lebanon in the promotion of organic farming and in the establishment of the organic certification program for Lebanon. At the same time, I am doing a master degree in environmental sciences and working, as part of my thesis research, in the preliminary assessment of the market of herbal remedies in Lebanon.

This background might clarify the root of my question.

In Lebanon, as many other developing countries, the budget allocated for protection of the native flora is not enough. On the other hand, important part of the native flora is under extinction danger (e.g. out of 236 wild and cultivated species of medicinal plants in Lebanon, 16 are rarely localized and 29 are endangered - according to UNEP and the Ministry of Agriculture of Lebanon). Since the human and economic resources in Lebanon seem to be short towards the resources that conservation demands, there is the motivation to protect the native flora though non-conventional approaches. As a result, it was thought that using public/private areas already protected (e.g. archeological sites, universities� gardens, and others) could be an effective way to preserve the Lebanese native flora. Thus, conservation might happen as a secondary objective of such protected areas while avoiding the expenses that the establishment of botanical gardens and natural reserves imply. Based on this, I would like to ask you if you can provide me any information related to projects or initiatives that aim to conserve native flora as secondary activity. Also, if you are aware about successful native flora conservation projects in the rural areas.

Any comment, suggestion, or information will be of huge help.

Thank you in advance and regards for all,

Georgina Catacora V.




Georgina Catacora V.
AUB P.O. Box 11 - 0236 / 3927
Riad El Solh, Beirut 1107 - 2020, Lebanon
Tel.: +961 3 79 56 44
Reply

• Medicinal plant 'fights' Aids
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1683259.stm

A South African indigenous medicinal plant may hold the key to the treatment of millions of poor people living with HIV and Aids, helping them relieve the symptoms of Aids.

For the first time in South Africa's medical history, the plant, Sutherlandia Frutescens, sub-species Microphylla, is to undergo clinical trials to assess its immune-boosting properties.

----------------------------------------------

Malaria nets 'could save thousands
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/2973273.stm
Simple nets could help reduce the human toll of malaria across Africa, campaigners say.

The disease kills at least a million people every year - and kills a child in Africa every thirty seconds.

Ninety per cent of deaths from malaria occur in the sub-Saharan area of Africa.

The World Health Organization and Unicef have published a report, launched in Kenya on Friday to mark Africa Malaria Day by President Mwai Kibaki, urging more global investment for work to prevent and treat malaria.

A conference to mark the day was also held in London to highlight the need for action.

Fewer than 3% of children at risk of malaria are protected by the highly effective insecticide protected nets.

The WHO and Unicef are also calling for newer, more effective, combination drug therapies to be made more widely available across Africa.

MALARIA IN AFRICA

Up to 3,000 children die each day Some one million people die each year Number of cases has quadrupled in 20 years

The humanitarian organisation Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) has backed the call for the provision of new anti-malarial treatments, as traditional drugs are failing because of growing resistance to them.

MSF said the failure to fund the combination drug treatment showed an emphasis on saving money rather than saving lives.

The WHO and Unicef said prompt treatment of malaria, plus proper use of the nets could reduce malaria transmission by up to 60% and death rates in young children by around a fifth.

International lobby group, Massive Effort, say African governments should eliminate all sales taxes on malaria bed nets which can stop mosquitoes.

Good sanitation and running water also helps tackle malaria because the mosquitoes which carry the parasite then have nowhere to breed.

The United Nations has raised $200m for its latest malaria eradication campaign, but says it needs a billion dollars every year.

Resistance

Malaria cases are on the increase, with around four times the number of cases in the 1990s compared to the 1970s and two to three times the number of deaths in hospital.

In large part, this is due to high levels of resistance to the drugs chloroquin and sulphadoxine-pyrithemaine (SP).

By 1999, Tanzania had resistance rates ranging from 28 to 97%, in Kenya from 66 to 87% and from 10 to 80% in Uganda.

MSF is calling on donor agencies, such as the UK Department for International Development and the US Agency for International Development to plough more money into malarial treatment in Africa.

It wants them to fund the introduction of ACT - artemisinin-based combination therapy, which has been recommended by the WHO.

Lots of this is preventable and we could do massively better

Clare Short, UK International Development Secretary

Using artemisinin drugs, derived from the Chinese plant Artemisia annua in combination with other drugs such as amodiaquine can eradicate malaria symptoms in three days.

The drugs cost $1 to $3, compared to chloroquin which costs around 10 cents.

ACT has been introduced in some African countries, including the KwaZulu Natal province, where there was an 80% reduction in hospital deaths from malaria when ACT was introduced.

Other countries want to follow WHO guidance and introduce the therapy, but cannot afford to.

Pregnant women

Commenting on the WHO/Unicef report, UK International Development Secretary Clare Short said: "Malaria causes more ill-health and loss of life in Africa than any other disease or cause of ill health, and particularly affects children and pregnant women.

Mosquito borne malaria can be reduced by insecticide-treated nets

"The thing that's worst of all about it is that lots of this is preventable and we could do massively better."

Carol Bellamy, executive director of Unicef, said: "Malaria kills an African child every 30 seconds, and remains one of the most important threats to the health of pregnant women and their newborns.

"We have the knowledge and the potential to achieve our target of reducing the global burden of malaria by half by 2010, but we need much greater investment and political commitment."

Dr Nick White, professor of tropical medicine at Mahidol University, Thailand and Oxford University said: "What would you rather do - waste money on old cheap drugs that you know don't work or fund a more expensive treatment that will save lives?"

Dr Bernard Pecoul, director of MSF's Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines, added: "Since 2001, WHO experts have recommended replacing failing malaria medicines with more effective treatments, but donors have failed to encourage this change, choosing to save money rather than lives."
----------------------------------------------

Mushrooms: 'the new medicine'

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1723544.stm

Scientists and doctors are beginning to realise the magic of mushrooms.

One prominent surgeon in the UK recently developed gall stones but swore he would not allow his fellow surgeons to operate on him.
The West is now well aware of herbal medicines. The next class of natural medicines will be mushrooms

So he turned solely to eating mushrooms from the supermarket for three months and the gall stones slowly disappeared.

The low fat content of his diet may have contributed to his recovery.

He told BBC News Online: "If I developed gall stones again I would not hesitate to go on a mushroom diet again.

"But there is no way I could recommend them to my patients or tell my colleagues I did not trust their skill in the operating theatre.

"There is not yet to evidence on the mechanics behind why I am cured. Science has not got there yet.

"And as a doctor I could not recommend scientifically unresearched cures to people. That is bad medicine."

Chinese led the way

But mushrooms have received backing from other senior figures in medical research.

One such proponent of their powers is Dr John Wilkinson of the herbal medicine department, Middlesex University.
He said: "Mushrooms have been used in China for thousands of years for medicinal purposes.

"The West is now well aware of herbal medicines. The next class of natural medicines will be mushrooms.

"Normal field mushrooms could possibly have a dissolving effect of gall stones although it is not proven.

"But it is well documented that a low fat and dairy-free diet can assist in the treatment of gall stones.

"Reishi mushrooms however do have a strong reputation for fighting health problems. Often patients are forced into medication and surgery when there are other safe alternatives."

Reishi mushrooms are particularly useful for treating arthritis through anti inflammatory agents called triturpinoids, which are similar to steroids.

Dr Wilkinson said: "Laboratory studies have also shown that resihi and shitake mushrooms can boost the immune system function as well."

Tonics of these mushrooms are often drunk in China for conditions such as arthritis, influenza and the common cold.

Olive oil
Mr Colin Johnson, consultant surgeon at Southampton General Hospital does not recommend mushrooms for the treatment of gall stones.

Plants have evolved complex chemical systems to fight infection and disease and scientists are beginning to take advantage of the techniques

But he told BBC News Online: "I have seen cases where a patient fasts and then drinks olive oil to destroy gall stones.

"The gall bladder contracts and empties the gall stones from the body."

Dr Jordan Gutterman, from the MD Anderson Cancer Centre in Houston, Texas, US has been conducting research into the anti-cancer properties of chemical extracts from Australian desert trees.

He said: "Western science is beginning to understand the benefits of natural chemicals.

"Plants have evolved complex chemical systems to fight infection and disease and scientists are beginning to take advantage of the techniques that plants have already worked out, and use them for humans.

"The genome project highlighted the fact that plants and animal share many networks of cells. We can learn a lot from plants in how to fight disease."

Spicy cure

Dr Wilkinson is in entire agreement. He is currently studying the African potato, which works as an immune stimulant.

Recent studies in South Africa, soon to be published have shown there are chemicals called lignans which boost the immune system.

Lignans are also found in the Indian spice, turmeric.

Dr Wilkinson said: "Studies have shown that lignans in the African potato can actually maintain the CD4 cell count in the body in HIV patients, preventing further deterioration of the immune system."

There are over 7000 species of herbs and mushrooms used in China.
Reply
Delete
• Ivor Hughes
Apr 25, 2003
View Source
The WHO and Unicef said prompt treatment of malaria, plus proper use of the nets could reduce malaria transmission by up to 60% and death rates in young children by around a fifth.

Insectidcide impregnated mosquito nets are a danger to those that use them. Either from outgassing or bodily contact with the net.

To recommend that a pregnant woman use these contraptions is foolhardy. Many of the insecticides are proven carcinogenic. It is also proven that there are small windows that open at different times during the gestation period, during which these chemicals slip through the placental barrier. Thalidomide is a good example.

To recommend that a young child use these nets is also foolhardy. Even more so if the child has had its immune system compromised by childhood vaccination and western synthetic medicines.

I can recommend the following anti mosquito repellant, which I used across a 7 year period whilst serving in Africa and the Middle and Far East. It was very effective.

Martindales 24th....
Anti-mosquito Cream :
Citronella oil 18.25%. Camphor 1%. Cedarwood oil 1%. Hard parafinn 17.25 %. White soft parafinn 45%. Applied to hands, face, neck and ears it will keep off mosquitos for 6 hours and is an excellent protection against sandflies.
J.A.Manifold, Trans.R. Soc. trop, Med, Hyg., 1939,33,298.

For any child under 7 years of age the camphor should be excluded. Beeswax and almond oil could be substituted for the mineral oil and wax. Due to an increase in absorbancy from the use of vegetable oil and the beeswax, The citronella may be detected on the breath within 30 minutes. This is a plus in terms of prevention.

Ivor Hughes
www.herbdataNZ.com
Reply
Delete
• Georgina M. Catacora V.
Message 3 of 3 , Apr 28, 2003
View Source
Dear Dr. Hughes,
Just a word of thank for your advice. Not only for the mosquito repellent recipe, but also for remind us the natural the better. I am from Bolivia and I sadly know that some of the recommendations or aid that come from international institutions harm more than help �there are some sad experiences in my country. Unfortunately, the most vulnerable accept such recommendations happily due to lack of information. So, thank you for keep us informed.

Regards,
Georgina Catacora V.
Ivor Hughes <Herbworks1@xtra.co.nz> wrote:The WHO and Unicef said prompt treatment of malaria, plus proper use of the nets could reduce malaria transmission by up to 60% and death rates in young children by around a fifth.

Insectidcide impregnated mosquito nets are a danger to those that use them. Either from outgassing or bodily contact with the net.

To recommend that a pregnant woman use these contraptions is foolhardy. Many of the insecticides are proven carcinogenic. It is also proven that there are small windows that open at different times during the gestation period, during which these chemicals slip through the placental barrier. Thalidomide is a good example.

• The word extinction in terms of medicinal plants is synonymous with
demand. One may reasonably assume that there is a market for the
specie.

I rather like the Ethiopian approach. Home gardens are being utilised
to increase stocks of threatened plants.

I have no idea what the current situation is in Eastern Europe.
However at one time the drug house journeymen would range across the
countryside purchasing small parcels of herbs from local villagers at
the appropriate season. The villagers would air dry the herbs by
bunching and hanging them in a dark place and protected from the
elements.

Simple but effective distribution. The dollar is a great motivator
for those that have none.

Many countries will have local herb groups. These are usually
comprised of talented amateurs that have a love affair with herbs.
A word in the secretaries ear will usually produce a plethora of
propagation material, which can then be grown on to increase the
stock.

Ivor Hughes
www.herbdataNZ.com
Add to this conversation...
Greetings to the Group,
I have received one query from HUNGARY about Yucca.I request you
to answer this query, as YUCCA is not a common herb in my area.
regards
P.OUDHIA


Dear Pankaj Oudhia,
I am a head doctor. I live in Veszprém town near by Balaton

Lake in Hungary. I'm interesting in the effects of Yucca saponins in
human medicine. I would like to ask you kindly, to help me to find
the answers of fallowing questions:

1.Does the Yucca schidigera plant have triterpenoid saponins as well
as steroid saponins?

2.Does Yucca schidigera plant contain resveratrol?

3. Do Yucca saponins have an estrogen effect ? .

4 Do Yucca saponins have anti-protozoal effect ? For example anti-
Giardia (lamblia ) and anti- Sarcocystis neurona Effect ?

5.Do Yucca saponins have anti-cancer effect ?

6. Have you got some medical informations about side effects of
Yucca saponins ?

If you have some scientifical documents from Yucca saponins effects
in human medicine please send me these informations.

I' m waiting with great interest your answer.

With my best personal regards

Dr. Ernõ Mántó

Kodály Z.u.,8

Veszprém-Hungary

8200
E-mail maer@infornax.hu
Reply


• Dear Kat and other Phytomedica readers

Symposia.. seminars every where .. have any one thought how effective they are except for the academic interest. commercial intersts are powerful as it is thier survival in a competitive world.. then how to counter or even offset the overexploitation and subsequent endangerment of species.. ONE HAS TO ACCEPT THE REALITY THAT THE DRIVING FORCE FOR OVEREXPLOITATION IS NOT BASICALLY PROFIT BUT POVERTY IN THE TROPICAL LANDS.. POVERTY THAT DRIVES THE PEOPLE TO DO ANYTHING TO EARN TODAYS BREAD .. CAN ANY ORGANISATION PROIVIDE THEM WITH WORk AND MONEY TO LIVE THROUGH. It is a social malady and and is there anythingf the conservationists can do.. let us start from the grass root level rather than meeting and endlessly discussing..
PN Ravindran
Coordinating Director
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research
Arya Vaidya Sala
Sathabdhi Nagar, Changuvetty
Kottakkal 676 503
Malappuram Dist. Kerala, India

Phone : 0483-2743430
Reply
Delete
• reshkadesh
Message 2 of 2 , May 9, 2003
View Source
I have this suggestion for herbariums and grass rooters:
As a practitioner and a teacher I never buy from mass production
sources if I can help it. I specifically look for the individual
whose methods are organic and which I know and can even influence if
I wished, and who have single or a few hardy crops that they are
familiar with and handle in more traditional ways - we are a "whole
plant" school. Supply private profesionals and schools, and you will
get dinner, clothes, housing programs, education - and whatever else
these have to offer you along with your sparse wage. Companies can
only offer the lowest going price on the market (which they have also
created...) and charge the higher (which they have also created...)
While I was walking past the echinacea rows yesterday I was thinking
that it reproduced itself exponentially, and we have cultured and
started many times what we have used in the last five years. (How
beautiful it is at this stage when the big leaves are full and the
stems haven't quite come up.....) I was thinking that the "myth of
extinction" is caused by the corporate producer and then touted by
them as a justification for even more heinous abuses. It is as if a
man in court, accused of murdering his parents in cold blood, pleads
for mercy on the basis that he is an orphan?
While I don't know if traditional medicine works for "non-believers"
as many faith based voices assert, I have done "government work" and
without rancor I have to confess that to tempt people to try and
profit from this or convert/conform it to the system they conceive
would be disastrous - I would not bet my career going to U.S. or
other Governements and saying "We can do this ourselves" because you
cannot imagine what you undertake. I agree with the position that the
traditional school must, if anyone, be placed in that "authority" -
which possibility is laughable because what school of traditional
doctors or priests would permit commercial earth rape and species
(human also) exploitation? - the possibility would remain no more
successful.
Legislate against corporate use and for the public domain. Let State
conservation protect them, Private sector educate and support them
and farmers and individuals farm them and you will have your only
workable answer in my considered opinion. (Or, go to serious people
with something that gives you that feeling you are over before you
start.....U.S. beaurocrat people come on - you are going to the
office with this? All that "road pizza" of predecessors behind you
and you can't burst into a whole new concept? If you are going to
burn with the "schools, parks and botanists" you might as well go
down with a new program in your hands that might actually make some
people happy...maybe even the majority....)
Only by honoring everyone's place and rights can we move closer to
beneficial models. That is our only real frontier if one exists, but
there isn't enough money in any of this to buy the use rights in our
country or I suspect others. Poor greed that lusts and finds no
succor.
We owe it to our governments and citizens to practice right use and
that can be made real. We do that all the time for free. We again owe
it to these to have blue ribbon education and learning opportunities
at all areas/levels. These are things that can be conceived and
accomplished by the State and private sector to the benefit of all.

• Hello everyone

I apologise if any of you have already got this plea through Plant
Chat or Sahwg, however I am sure some of you will have strong
feelings about herbaria even if negative. We would really like to
hear both good and bad as well as even the wildest and off beat
ideas from professional and amateur botanists and plant people
alike! I also think that people elsewhere in the world will have ideas
about herbaria based on experiences in their countries which could
help us change direction of that is what is needed.

We are a small and self funded NGO running the Southern Cape
Hebrarium and the Garden Route Botanical Garden. We are
concerned that there seems to be such a decrease of activity and
institutional interest in keeping Herbaria alive and relevant in South
Africa today. Are Herbaria actually relevant in their present form to
all the conservation projects and new conservation laws coming
into being? Are we relevant and needed in the new South Africa?
Do Botany students still use herbaria and how many Botany
students are there today?

Most important what can be done about it if herbaria are in fact
becoming less and less relevant. Are they too stuck in their
eurocentric and probably old-fashioned modes? How many people
out in the streets even know we exist or if they do what we do!?

What can be done about it?

I do not see how all the mega new conservation projects and
initiatives funded by mainly US donors, can possibly get by without
at some stage using a herbarium to identify, and lodge specimens
of, the plants and vegetation composition and red data species and
threatened species, which they will have to at some stage look at
and factor into the application phase after the high technology GIS
planning. After all individual plants are the basis of all life - the big
five (animals) do not exist without the plants! In fact a plant does
not officially exist either unless there is a specimen which can be
referred to which is labelled, numbered, identified and lodged in a
herbarium somewhere.

What should a modern African Herbarium look like and do, to be
academically, and perhaps most importantly, culturally relevant and
truly useful?

Regards, Yvette


Yvette van Wijk
- writing on behalf of the Garden Route Botanical Garden Trust
incorporating the Southern Cape Herbarium, the IMITHI Medicinal Plant project,
and their Botanical & Environmental Education Project (BEEP) sponsored by The Green Trust

We are an independent nonprofit organisation located -
49 Caledon Street, George, 6529. Tel/Fax: 044-8741558

Please visit the Garden and the Herbarium when in this area!
Reply
Delete
• Patricia_DeAngelis@fws.gov
May 8, 2003
View Source
A quick, personal perspective on the status of Herbaria in the US: My Alma
Mater, The University of Maryland, eliminated its Plant Biology program in
1997 - one can no longer obtain a doctorate in Botany at UMd! At that
point, the Norton-Brown Herbarium, already near death, was transferred to
the Department of Entomology. I don't know what's happening, but we seem
to be a dying breed! A sad state of affairs, to say the least.


Patricia S. De Angelis, Ph.D.
Botanist
Division of Scientific Authority
US Fish & Wildlife Service
4401 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 750
Arlington, VA 22203
703-358-1708 x1753
Reply
Delete
• Herbworks1
May 8, 2003
View Source
Herbaria and Herbariums are an essential. As a child we called them ' Botanic Gardens' an educational tool of the first order. Usually funded by City Council from the rating levy. However such days are long gone, hurtling down the road of user pays.

One thing is for sure the user pays concept broke the back of a hide bound academia so that they have had to behave like a lady of the night and climb into to bed with whoever has the money .... user pays.

Enter the Pharmageddon industry. Today we may see the flower of that particular hybridisation. Same old, same old. Ivan Illich laid the matter bare in his classic polemic, ' Medical Nemesis '

Here in New Zealand the stories are rife of newly graduated students being refused a mortgage on a house. The reason ... they already have an educational mortgage with the Government. Consequently many have taken their education with them as they chase the dollar around the globe, carrying an accumulating rate of interest which has a stimulating effect on self interest. Its called 'Usury' . That is the Virus that has been eating at the infra-structure of rich and poor nations alike.

Conservation under such a regime is impossible without tight regulation. Read ..... rip the people off ! The best conservators are those very people that are being marginalised by self interest committees. Committees who push a grossly distorted paradigm and try to blame the victim for the current state of affairs. Hunger and possible death from starvation brooks no self serving legislation. Especially when dollars are dangled on the end of the fishing line. If it were your child ... the one with the big staring eyes, full of misery for a life that will never be, rib cage like a grotesque parody of a xylophone and a swollen belly that could be sounded like a bass drum, I know what I would do, what would you do ? So far the answer has been repression ! Conservation police backed by legislation. Conservation must be by cooperation with those that are the most affected. Its not the hardware that is the problem, it is self serving buggy software, which is the legal standard operating system.

Fortunately for the world at large there is a growing body of scientists in a revolt of revulsion, at the tampering with the very fabric of life. Even those staid old women aka medical journals are starting to lift the skirts around the ankles and kick up their heels in protest.

Surely it is common sense that prevention is better than cure. If we remove the cause then we have a permanent cure. Ah yes I forgot about the latest cash cow .... Genetics .... in Hitler's day we called it Eugenics. The Nurenberg war crime trials stretched a few medical necks for far less than what is being practiced today. Experiments on babies, and pregnant women, the elderly, the infirm and the mentally ill.

Much is blah blahed about academic and scientific freedom .... and God forbid the book burners. Freedom without responsibility is the tyranny of the many by a self serving few. Lack of accountability is irresponsibility.

So for the Conservationist ... as Churchill once said ... the only thing I can promise is blood sweat and tears. Well that is a small price to pay for a priceless asset. The Western nations are going down in a tidal wave of obesity and the poorer nations are being ground down by debt to the IMF and the World Bank and grossly unfair trade practices.

Conservation must start where it will end .... with the people .... at the grass roots. It is a matter of prime importance that a devolution in power be inserted into the decision making process.

Ivor Hughes.
www.herbdatanz.com
Reply
Delete
• John D'hondt
May 8, 2003
View Source
It is even worse that a significant part of all species are not too far away
from disappearing for ever. An estimated 30% of all American species are
moving towards that point fast.
And maybe that is just a symptom of what is happening to the planet all
over. Our good space ship Earth seems to have sprung a few leaks. How
inportant an herbarium is in all this I can not say. I suppose that depends
on how far we are going to fal.
john


> A quick, personal perspective on the status of Herbaria in the US: My

Alma

Show message history
Reply
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•

Yvette,

In reference to your posting on the relevance of Herbaria, I also cast my vote in their favor as it is the very foundation
on which our research is based.From my experience it appears that the larger botanic gardens and universities have a fairly thorough representation of species. The smaller gardens however seem to be lacking probably due to funding or lack of volunteers. This appears to be the case with regards to the one closest to our facility and as a result we have created our own.

I would suggest that you follow the lead of the European gardens and universities and develop a close and working relationship with the scientific communities as they can
be immensly beneficial to you. We have fantastic relations with the European community, but the American gardens
tend to forget that the Convention on Biological Diversity
includes us.

One thing that we have begun is to offer university students
a chance to work in our "Endangered Gardens" and lab to gain experience and in return they receive scholarships
toward their education rather then hourly wages. This seems to provide us with plenty of help.This would be a great source of help in maintaining your Herbaria and keep the interest alive in the students.
Regards,
J.N.Covanes
Director of Research
Botresearch USA
www.botresearch.com

"sharing botanical knowledge with industry, universities, and the general public"
Reply

Dear Yvette,


I accept that the herbarium is very essential for any organisation working with research/ academics/ conservation/ community etc.

There are several herbaria established by dedicated botanists and now are in the state of degrading, reasons are lack of funds, lack of dedication to the regular upkeep of the herbarium and lack of infrastructure facility. I would like to share about our experience with respect to herbarium known as Bio-cultural herbarium.

Herbarium is one of the major activity in our organisation (FRLHT), with prime importance to medicinal plants. Ours is 10 years old herbarium established mainly for research purpose to support the conservation activity in the Project states of Southern India. It has helped to have scientific proof/ documentation of the species along with ecological and biological information associated with it in the field books. Based on the information related with the herbarium specimens and botanical surveys, new conservation sites have been established to conserve species like monotypic and endemic species like Janakia araylapatra, Utleria salicifolia and heavily traded species for its bark like saraca asoca, coscinium fenestatum.


Today our perspectives have changed, along with traditional herbarium arranged according to Bentham and Hooker system of classification, we have shifted our focus to the needs of the user groups. The work has been initiated its work in this direction. The aim is to cater to the needs of the non taxonomists along with taxonomists say it students, practitioners of traditional systems, foresters, researchers house holds, etc. A common person could access the herbarium just by knowing a local name and herbarium database will in turn help him/ her to reach out to the specimen. To provide the user group with information apart from the dried herbarium specimen which only experienced or taxonomist can identify, the herbarium database is being developed into a multi dimensional facet with linkage to the plant images, raw drug samples (as lay person can identify the usage part easily), distribution database (for a conservationist to know the occurrence and details of plants), information on classification of the plants according to ayurvedic systems, special theme based sections. The information of the herbarium specimens are utilised to develop eco-distribution maps useful for the conservationists and forest departments. Digitisation of the herbarium sheets is yet another useful activity to go electronic and let people access voucher specimens from different part of the country.

There should be a network of all the herbaria electronically and this will make them alive and more active by exchanging the thoughts and herbarium information.

Infact our herbarium has been a tool for students from schools to accomplish their projects like- flora of their school campus. Another activity is imparting training to people interested in the know-how of herbarium. Herbarium software has been given to institutions to maintain the herbarium. I have shared in brief about the activities of FRLHT herbarium (FRLH) and I hope it is of some use to you. You may have to prioritise and mend the objectives and activities of the herbarium based on the your priority and purpose to let the herbarium survive.


With best wishes


S. Noorunnisa Begum
Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health and Traditions (FRLHT)
Conservation Research Group
74/2, Jarakbande Kaval,
Yelahanka, Via Attur Post,
Bangalore - 560 064
Tel.ph:(080) 8565008 (Dir), 8568000(Gen), 3411607 (Res)
email: noorunnisa.begum@frlht.org.in
Fax: + 91 (080) 8567926;
Website - www.frlht.org.in
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•
<<As far as the rest of your posting is concerned I agree with it all
basically except the bit about no new species to describe!>>

Yes - we would agree. Species evolve, "appear", fade away as a
regular part of terrestrial life forever. That is why it is so
difficult to accept these industry based "extinction crisis" claims
as they seem to incorporate natural "numbers" and phenomena as part
of these figures which are supposed to reflect mankinds abuses which
only occur as the result of industrial use which exceeds the natural
balance.

<<I would say that the first Botanists were food gatherers and even
healers way back before anything was written down at all!? Mostly I
would say they were women!>>

Tassili N'Ajjer, Algeria cave drawings 5,500 BC(?): Women engaged
primarily in agricultural activity / men primarily engaged in
hunting. Shaman is the exception, however shamanic practice at
differing points has not always included the majority of healing. I
believe it is thought by most that prehistoric women were at least as
active if not primarily so in general healing. The Shaman dealt in
serious afflictions, augury, rites of passage and death. (Don't hang
me totally on that - there has been as much variation as there has
been time and room for on Earth...)

My two cents on Herbaria relevance is this: I don't discover many
plants, someone else does. Because of the way they identify and
record them I later (often much much later) sift for "likely
candidates and clues" among notata of someone else's from an entirely
differnet discipline. The idea that they are not considered vitally
important to life on Earth is barely comprehendable to me. It all
goes back to the botanists....

<<Then first men and Arab pharmacists got in on the act then more men
and the other major religions plus Christianity..>>

Well, bad publicity is better than no publicity at all! Thank you for
remembering that this was once held at the level of sacred esteem
(human frailties and abuses accepted..) and perhaps causing any of us
to pause and remember the profound relevance of our subject and
discussion. Too often we focus from a perspective that all will
continue as is and as planned - though history has never one time
shown us that. What history has shown is that at times humanity has
had to really "hunker down" and get very practical and close to it's
origens to survive - some things remain that carry us through the
trauma of less stable things and times.

Perhaps the Botanists might consider the benefits of Christian or
other monastic society; it is almost a mirror academic environment
and if it gets much worse for you all, you'll be going about in
burlap and sandals on bread and water anyway! (Just kidding....I
hope!)

Karl Buchanan
Rose Chapel College
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Dear Planters

The European Union has implemented (or is implementing) an Act
which will prohibit the use of unregistered pesticides on crops
sold in the EU. This has potentially dire consequences for the
commercial agriculture of medicinal plants, since very few
pesticides are registered for medicinal plants (and spices, for
that matter).

Leaving aside for a moment the issue of organic agriculture (to
which I am sympathetic), can someone on this list please assist
me in answering my questions below? Please, no EU-bashing or
pharmaceutical hammering, I am just looking for concrete facts in
order for our company to comply with the necessary regulations.
Griping about the matter will not help anyone. Constructive
answers would be much appreciated.

* Where can I find a copy of the Act and information about its
enactment?

* Are any academic or governmental institutions in Europe
working on registering certain pesticides for medicinal plants?

* Is is possible for non-EU companies to request information to
such research?

***
--

Frank Muller

Director: Integrow Health (Pty) Ltd
PO Box 4075, George East, 6539, South Africa
Tel: [+27] (0)44-874 1715
Cell: [+27] (0)83-300 1073
Fax: [+27] (0)44-874 1716
Email: frank.muller@integrow.co.za
Greetings to the Group,
SAMPDA (Samagra Adivasi Medicinal Plants Development
Association) is Chhattisgarh,India based non-governmental and non-
profit organisation engaged in Herbal research, extension and
education.Recently the website of SAMPDA detailing its various
activities has been launched.I invite you to visit this site and give
your comments.
http://www.sampda.org

regards
P.OUDHIA
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• Has any one noticed that this abstract appears to vindicate the practice of homeopathy ?

Exposure to the plant Euphorbia tirucalli has been proposed to be a cofactor in the genesis of endemic Burkitt's lymphoma (eBL). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of unpurified E. tirucalli latex on Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) gene expression. A Burkitt lymphoma cell line was treated with varying dilutions of the latex and the effects on EBV gene expression were measured. We observed that the latex was capable of reactivating the EBV lytic cycle in a dose-dependent manner and at dilutions as low as 10-6. Simultaneous treatment of cells with E. tirucalli latex and the protein kinase C inhibitor 1-(5-isoquinolinesulphonyl)-2-methylpiperazine dihydrochloride blocked lytic cycle activation. These data suggest that environmental exposure to the latex of E. tirucalli could directly activate the EBV lytic cycle and provide further evidence of a role for E. tirucalli in the aetiology of eBL.
British Journal of Cancer (2003) 88, 1566-1569. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6600929

The problem with this type of data, is that it presumes much which our current level of scientific knowledge cannot support. Nothing happens in isolation as though it were a snapshot frozen in time. Everything in the body is connected to everything else and it is all happening at many thousands of times per second.

The Phlogiston type theory is alive and well and in full flower. The results are all around us. The same nonsensical conclusions. The same stupid excuses, the same cover-ups, the same corruption, but most telling of all is the awful carnage that has been unleashed on the biosphere.

"History teaches us that any division of the science from the art is necessarily harmful to the practice"
Arturo Castiglioni.
A History of Medicine. 1947.

Has anyone noticed that there has been a concerted action by big Pharmageddon to discredit plant drugs to the point where they are dangerous and must be controlled.

The drive for curbs on herbal medicines
Source: Financial Times
Date: 23/05/2003
The potential dangers of mixing herbal medicines with conventional prescription drugs is leading to calls for greater regulation, and several countries have already made moves to restrict the availability of herbal medicines. Reports of health problems associated with herbal medicines occur for various reasons. Patients taking herbal remedies may stop taking their prescribed medicine, and their herbal medicine may have been adulterated because the industry is not tightly controlled. Some herbal medicines can even be toxic, and many doctors are sceptical about their potential benefits. David Firn reports on how the European Commission has taken steps on herbal medicines to protect patient safety.

This type of pronouncement should give us all pause for thought. I mean, is it not enough to make your windows freeze ? I have never read such a load of old tripe in my life. Shame on science !

Has anyone noticed that whenever little Pharmageddon has made a mess on its bib at the public trough, that the cause of the problem has been standardised plant extracts ?

The normal standardised extract is a whole plant extract, in which the so called active principle has been adjusted to a predetermined level. Or the isolated active principle is used either with an adjuvant or fillers. A good example would be the Kava kava nonsense. Individuals following the recommended dosage of Kava lactones would on average consume the equivalent of 200grams of fresh root per day. This is at the antipodes of folk usage. Folk knowledge in the matter of posology is superior to scientific posology and for some very common sense reasons.

I have discussed the matter in a little more depth here ..
http://www.herbdatanz.com/SynergyandPosologyofHerbalPreparations.html

The whole matter of plant drugs is a struggle for control. The synthetics market is collapsing in a mass of death and corruption. Even the once proud Royal Society has turned into a raddled old whore. The results of medical and chemical science are all around and plain to see.

If we are not careful then the peoples of every nation will be deprived of their heritage by legislation. Ivan Illich said it all in his best selling book 'Medical Nemesis' When that happens the people will take matters into their own hands. When the people do that, history also teaches us what happens. Perhaps the people need bread and not a scientific cake.

Ivor Hughes
www.herbdatanz.com
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• Ivor Hughes
Message 8 of 8 , May 26, 2003
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" It is indeed distressing when you hear people whom you are sure have never used herbs for treatment sing songs they don't belive in. "

Ah Professor Midiwo .... that statement is so true .... so true. It is a pity that the majority of the people in that class hang out in laboratories and chemistry departments.

Now back to the matter of issues in Herbal Medicine.

The chemical contamination of medicinal crops. Is there any possibility that we can see the studies which science has directed at this problem ? I am not talking of single chemicals, but rather the overall effect when these individual chemistry constructs are combined, as they surely are. Perhaps we have all been eating GM food for decades ?

The Scientific use of natural molecules both in our food and our medicinal herbs, borders on the fraudulent. I refer of course to the synthetics or to be more precise the Racemates.

Chemical science does not know how to make a natural molecule they must borrow one from nature. Science calls the products of that tinkering 'enantiomers'which are 'isomers' which are non superimposable mirror images. We may assume with good reason that these racemic mixtures generally 50/50 are dangerous. Those who are familiar with the concepts of stereo chemistry are well aware that a molecules spatial arrangement has a profound effect upon its physiological reaction within the body.

Enantiomers will not rotate a plane of polarised light. In other words they are optically inactive. That fact alone should have started the alarm klaxons blaring. Instead it started the cash registers ringing.

A good example of this type of nonsense is the vitamins, as manufactured by both Big Pharmageddon and Baby Pharmageddon. Folate is a coenzyme vitamin it is obtained naturally from many green leafy vegetables and as always, nature ensures that the Folate is produced in the gut by our symbiotic bacteria. Deficiency is considered to lead to various birth defects. People that are unable to manufacture Folate have an underlying problem which medicine has failed to address. Example physician induced vitamin deficiency by use of synthetic drugs. Two good examples are the Estrogen containing drugs and the Thiazide diuretics. We do not have to look far for the cause of deficiency diseases in fat over fed 1st world nations.

Natural folate is very expensive when compared to the synthetic Folic Acid. Cui Bono ?

Folate is known to be toxic when large doses are introduced to the body via a hypodermic needle. When a substance is first ingested it must pass through a number of chemical screens before the substance can reach the blood stream. Excess Folate (natural) is either broken down or excreted. This because the body recognises Folates spatial shape.

It obviously does not recognise the shape of the synthetic Folic Acid, and therefore will pass it unchanged. Accordingly a toxic dose for many people is inevitable. Especially now that Pharmageddon has succeeded in having the synthetic folic acid added to peoples daily slice of white death (Sliced white bread)

This is the real story behind the Vitamin debacle. On that basis Pharmageddon is set to take control of a burgeoning vitamins market because people need the vitamins to fortify the chemical cocktails that we grace with the name of food.

I find nothing compelling or of any hope in Professor Midiwo,s contribution. I have a word of advice for the good Professor. Do not be the agent that imports western medical problems into Africa.

Ivor Hughes
www.herbdatanz.com