PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

• PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS AND
  TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
  
  Professor Osmund D. Mwandemele
  Faculty Of Agriculture And Natural Resources
  University Of Namibia
  Private Bag 13301
  Windhoek, Namibia
  odmwandemele@unam.na
  
  INTRODUCTION
  
  Medicinal plants and traditional medicine play a very important role in the daily lives of the majority of the people on the African continent South of the Sahara. This fact is echoed very strongly by WHO in its Afro Technical Report Series no.1 of 1976 (Abegaz and Demissew, 1998), which summarizes African Traditional Medicine as: "the sum total of all the knowledge and practices, whether explicable or not, used in the diagnosis, prevention, and elimination of physical, mental and/or social imbalances. It relies exclusively on practical experience and observations handed down from generation to generation, verbally or in writing. African traditional medicine can, therefore, be considered as the sum total of practices, measures, ingredients and procedures of all kinds, whether material or not, which from time immemorial, has enabled and continues to enable the African to guard against diseases, to alleviate his/her sufferings and to cure himself/herself. Seen in this context, African traditional medicine has and continues to have a definite role to play in health care delivery in Africa. It will continue to play this role as long as modern medicine continues to be unable to meet the health care needs of the people of Africa effectively."
  
  Plant genetic resources in the wild are the main source of traditional medicine. Table 1 shows that quite a large proportion of forest species in Southern Malawi are used for medicinal purposes by the local communities.
  
  However, these genetic resources upon which millions of people are dependent upon for their survival are seriously threatened and are being lost as a result of human activities such as clearing land for cultivation, pesticide use, deforestation for various products, burning, urbanization and industrialization (Lanly, 1983). Hence the need for protection and conservation of these vital resources.
  
  The conservation of plant genetic resources of medicinal value and other uses is no longer an issue for debate. The need and necessity to conserve the World's Plant Genetic Resources for the very survival of mankind has now been appreciated by the majority of the World Population. The conservation of Genetic Resources, in addition to being necessary because of their importance as raw materials for industrial innovation and as vital sources of medicine, food, etc., are also recognized as a matter of insurance and investment necessary to:
  
  (a) Keep open future options as a buffer against harmful environmental change. The diverse trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants and grasses contribute significantly to environmental stability, protecting soils from degradation and also protecting water catchments.
  
  (b)Maintain the ecosystem thus ensuring ecological and evolutionary processes to function, and thus permitting the variety of living organisms to adapt to changing environments. As an ecosystem, removal of a species or genetic variability by unnatural means may place the integrity of the whole system at risk.
  
  Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity has clearly demonstrated the need for the conservation of biological diversity and plant genetic resources. The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) of the CGIAR system, also has elaborate conservation strategies and has signed protocols based on the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, with several countries in the World on the exchange of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and equitable sharing of benefits (IPGRI), 1996). However, the conservation of plant genetic resources, be they for medicinal use or otherwise, is not an easy task. If not carefully planned and implemented these efforts may lead to the destruction and ultimate loss of the very resources we may be trying to conserve. This paper brings to light some important biological, economic and social/cultural considerations which need to be considered when planning and implementing conservation programmes.
  
  IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
  1.BIOLOGICAL
  
  The most complex and diverse ecosystems with rich genetic resources that urgently need to be conserved lie in Africa. Most African countries have the least technical know how to cope with the complex issues related to conservation of plant genetic reources, which are least known (Hayman, 1985). For any conservation programme to be successful, some important genetic considerations need to be taken into account when planning and implementing such programmes. These include:
  
  (a) Breeding/Reproduction Systems.
  (b) Population size
  (c) Species diversity and types of samples
  (d) Plant competition, etc.
  
  For example, knowledge of breeding or reproduction systems is important in two ways:
  
  1.Modes of reproduction determine the level of inbreeding and consequently the genetic structure of populations, which determines the evolutionary potential of the species and thus its survival.
  
  2.Reproduction in most plants involves mutualistic interactions with a diverse array of animals, which serve as pollen and seed vectors. Thus effective conservation of plants is virtually impossible without an understanding of the key mutualistic interactions.
  Ex situ conservation of plant species often involves movement of plant materials from its habitat. For cross-pollinating plants, their survival in the new habitat will be greatly dependent on the availability of the appropriate pollination vectors. The survival of a given species may also be threatened under its natural habitat (in situ conservation) if management practices affect or interfere with the pollination vectors directly or indirectly. In both situations, the plant species in question may fail to reproduce seeds and thus the species survival may be at stake. Also, in genebanks, botanic gardens and arboreta, the maintenance of genetic diversity within the conserved species is very important. The role of pollination vectors in changing genetic structures of plants has been documented (Levi, 1978; Beattie, 1978). Populations of pollinators in a given habitat can greatly be reduced when chemicals are indiscriminately used to control pests. This may lead to poor seed set in plant populations due to lack of pollinators (Kevan, 1975) and hence the survival of the plant species may be threatened.
  Similarly, population size is very important in that the maintenance of genetic diversity is greatly influenced by population size of the plant species, with smaller sizes tending to lead to genetic decay or drift and inbreeding depression. Also, some plant species are dioecious (exist as male and female plants) and hence for effective pollination a minimum number of male plants may be necessary to secure seed setting (Agren, et al 1986), and plant spacing between male and female plants may be crucial.
  For these and other biological considerations, Conservation biologists and need to be involved at all levels of the planning and implementation process. The promotion of plantations and cultivation of medicinal plants need to be implemented very carefully otherwise the plant species may be exposed to genetic vulnerability and thus be threatened.
  
  2.ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION
  Biological diversity is a basic prerequisite for agricultural development as well as food and commodity based industrial production. A large proportion of the World's biodiversity found in Africa is exposed to substantial, irreversible destruction. This includes the destruction of ecosystems and species as well as genetic variation within each species as a result of destructive agricultural and other related production practices. Not all-medicinal plant species are threatened because of overexploitation for their medicinal values. Deforestation for timber, overgrazing, loss of soil fertility and incessant slash and burn agricultural practices etc. all lead to loss of plant genetic resources. Thus any conservation efforts should also consider the dependence of the indigenous people on these resources for their livelihood. The conservation efforts would also consider designing production technologies that will minimize the destruction of ecosystems, and therefore promote the conservation of bio-diversity and medicinal plant genetic resources. That is, we need to integrate natural resource management and conservation together with the agricultural production sector rather that treat them separately. Any production technologies developed should take into consideration their contribution to natural resource management (SACCAR, 1997), and that we must appreciate the fact that resources use in most cases is mutlisectoral.
  Integrated biosystems technologies need to be promoted and popularised both in peri-urban and rural areas. This involves the development of eco-technologies based on the integration of a series of environmentally friendly frontier production technologies and technologies of the local population (fig.1). This aims at the full utilization of the production potential of both biophysical and human resources, through an appropriate blend of traditional and frontier technologies, which are pro-nature, pro-poor and pro-women in their basic development approach. The outcome is enhanced productivity due to the efficient utilization of resources, resulting in better household cash incomes, and better quality of lives (Swaminatha, 1995). With improved cash income, people will be able to go to hospitals and medical clinics and thus lessen the pressure on medicinal plants and thus contribute indirectly to the sustainable use and conservation of these plant genetic resources.
  
  SOCIAL/CULTURAL
  Rural people have considerable knowledge about the characteristics, distribution, and site requirements of indigenous trees, bushes and other plants. Also, traditional healers and birth attendants are a storehouse of information about indigenous plants with medicinal and spiritual properties (FAO, 1994). In this respect it is important to involve the local people fully. Efforts to conserve medicinal plants and traditional knowledge cannot succeed if the social/cultural aspects of the indigenous people in relation to the exploitation of these genetic resources are not considered. Very often African traditional medicine is surrounded with a lot of superstition and secrecy, which makes it difficult for outsiders to get access to the vital information and knowledge of the plants and their medicinal values.
  
  Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and their uses is fast disappearing in the face of destruction of natural areas and transformation cultures. Many of the trusted young women and men who are expected to inherit this knowledge are themselves not very keen to practice or they have moved to towns in search of jobs. And with no proper record keeping, when the grandparent/parents die, the knowledge disappears with them. Ethno botanists have to work hard to ensure that local natural history becomes a living, written tradition in communities where it has been transmitted orally for many years.
  
  Community consultation is an important means of achieving protection and conservation goals since it provides additional information and guidance on the full range of values associated with genetic resources utilization (Young, 1995). People are particularly good at identifying opportunities if they are fully involved. Because conservation plans and strategies are developed with the full participation of the community members, their implementation will be supported by the community. For community-based decision-making, there is also opportunity to appoint people to be presented on local government committees tasked with the protection and conservation of the resources.
  This approach will not only be useful in promoting the conservation and sustainable utilization of plant genetic resources in the wild, but also in the community providing means and ways of sourcing the knowledge of traditional medicine and its conservation.
  
  Natural Resources Conservation and Management cannot succeed without considering gender and gender related issues. Both Agenda 21 and the platform for Action from the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, China 1995) recognized women's roles as managers of natural resources and recommended that women should have full and equal participation in all development activities, especially environmental management. African women have been both agents and victims of natural resources base degradation. Thus any protection and conservation efforts must also look at development strategies which will aim at alleviating the burden faced by African Women in effectively managing natural resources (FAO, 1994; UNU/INRA, 1997).
  
  CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF AFRICA'S MEDICINAL PLANTS AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
  
  Africa has a vast heritage of medicinal plants and traditional knowledge. African traditional medicine has and continues to have a definite role to play in health care delivery in Africa. It will continue to play this role as long as modern medicine continues to be unable to meet the health care needs of the people of Africa effectively. However, overexploitation of medicinal and other genetic resources, lack of appropriate technologies for managing the resources, i.e. technologies based on holistic research approach, ecology, socio-economics and culture, threaten the sustainability of these resources. In addition, there is often a conflict between agricultural development, natural resources management and biodiversity conservation. Urgent steps must be taken to ensure appropriate conservation and sustainable utilization of these resources, for the benefit of present and future generations, that is inter-generation equity which recognizes that, at a minimum, each generation inherits a resource endowment and is obliged to pass it on in a state that offers as many physical opportunities as were available to any previous generation, and provides equivalent opportunity for social and economic ability. These steps include the following:
  
  * We must accept that this is a regional concern, and that an ecoregional approach must be adopted to conduct research on sustainable agricultural production and natural resources utilization and the conservation of the natural resources in order to help focus and coordinate the research expertise available in individual countries, across the region. Recent surveys (1992) conducted in Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania on medicinal plants and traditional medicine revealed a lot of commonalities including the widespread use of some medicinal plants species in the four countries (Abegaz and Demissew, 1998). This indicates the importance of undertaking eco-regional research initiatives with a strong sense of partnerships among the collaborating institutions at local, national, regional and international levels. The World already possesses the knowledge, technologies and organizational capacities needed to implement conservation strategies in Africa. We need to promote international cooperation and linkages between the industrialized North and the less developed Africa, especially with respect to the promotion of research and training on Africa's natural resources development, management and conservation.
  
  * We must identify and prioritise research areas that require additional information necessary for effective conservation and management of Africa's medicinal plant genetic resources and traditional medicine. These could include:
  1.Research pertaining to the relationship between biodiversity and sustainable production processes.
  
  2.Collection and analysis of data on the biodiversity of Africa's genetic resources, including traditional and indigenous ethonobotanical knowledge, with a view to developing a database of sufficient scope for advisory service, determination of development strategies, policy formulation, programme planning and related decision-making.
  
  3.Research on Africa's ecosystems for in-situ conservation and the extent and effectiveness of traditional structures and institutions in biodiversity conservation, as well as on methods of ex-situ conservation. etc.
  * We must educate people to be a little wiser, through community education and training. The aim here is to share with our people, the wealth of information about the rich biodiversity of plants and animals we are blessed to have and about their ecological significance; about their sustainable management and conservation. Appreciative inquiry approach of community involvement should be adopted in planning and implementing conservation programmes. This will provide opportunities to all members to fully participate in discussions and popular decision making affecting the utilization and conservation of the resources and also enhance their perceptions of sustainable utilization, conservation and management of plant genetic resources.
  * We must train more conservation biologists, taxonomists and ethnobotonists, to build up the critical mass of people with appropriate know-how, who will consequently constitute teams of researchers to help develop an inventory of the various medicinal plant genetic resources, and advise on how they can be exploited sustainably.
  * We must develop and adopt agriculture; production technologies that will help conserve our ecosystems rather than degrade them. The use of integrated biosystem (IBS) production approaches may play a very significant role in preventing further destruction of our ecosystems. The Zero Emision Research Initiative (ZERI), which originated at the United Nations University (UNU), is actively involved in addressing these and other relateed problems, through its various partners. The faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources at the University of Namibia, is the Co-ordination centre for the African continent.
  * The ZERI activities based in the Faculty are focusing attention on the production of biogas energy, mushrooms, earthworms, and fish from solid and liquid wastes emanating from Brewery organic wastes, and also on mariculture ventures using nutrient-rich waters of the Benguela ecosystem. Additionally, in collaboration with UNDP, we have organized international training workshops on the ZERI concept and methodologies, which provided a forum for cross fertilization for ideas on possible Zeri projects for the entire continent and thus promote integrated biosystem production technologies for sustainable agricultural development and thus contribute towards the conservation of our ecosystems and the valuable plant genetic resources they contain.
  
  CONCLUSION
  
  Conservation of genetic resources as defined by the World Conservation Strategy, refers to the management of human use of genetic resources so that they may yield the greatest sustainable benefits to present generations, while sustaining their potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Sustainability has been defined as,"the stewardship and use of plant genetic resources in such a way, and at a rate, that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfil, now and in the future, relevant ecological, economic and social functions at local, national and global levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems. Thus there is a need for improved management systems which integrate biological knowledge, socio-economic needs of different stakeholders for daily livelihood, local and national economic development and a healthy environment.
  
  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
  
  I am most grateful to the organisers for inviting me to participate in this very important regional workshop. I am also very grateful to the donors who provided the funding in support of my participation in this workshop.
  
  
  REFERENCES
  Abegaz,B. and S.Demissew, 1988.Indigenous African useful plants with special emphasis on medicinal plants and issues associated with their management. A paper presented at a regional workshop on Africa's Natural Resources Conservation and Management Surveys, 2-5 March, 1998, Accra, Ghana.
  
  Agren, J. Elmquist, J. and Tunlid, A, 1986. Pollination by deceit, floral sex ration and seed set in dioecious Rubus chamaemorus. Oecologia, 70:332-338
  
  Beattie, A., 1978. Plant - Animal interactions affecting gene flow in Viola: The pollination of flowers by insects. In A.J. Richards (ed) Linnean Society Symp. Series, no 6, Academic Press, London.
  
  Bone, R., Lawrence, M., and Magombo, Z., 1997. The effects of a Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantation on native woodland recovery on Ulumba Mountain, in southern Malawi. Forest Ecology and Man. In Press.
  
  FAO, 1994. Rural Households and sustainability: Integrating Environmental and Gender Concerns in Home Economics Curricula. FAO, Rome.
  
  Hayman, E.L. 1995. Tropical Forest: Applied Research and Effective Technology Transfer vital. Mazingira, 8: 16-19.
  
  IPIGRI, 1996. Access to Plant Genetic Resource and the Equitable sharing of benefits. Issues in Genetic Resources, no.4, IPIGRI, Rome.
  
  Kevan, P.J., Forest Application of the Insecticide Fenitrothion and its effects on Wild Bee Pollinators (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) of Low Blueberries(Vaccinum spp.) in Southern New Brunswick. Canada Biol. Conserv.,7:301-309.
  
  Lanly, J.P.,1983. Present situation and evaluation of tropical forest resources. Mazingira, 7: 2-15
  
  Levin, D.A. Pollinator behaviour and the breeding structure of plant populations: The pollination of flowers by insects. In Richards, A.J. (ed) Linnean Society Symp. Series no 6. Academic Press, London.
  Swaminathan, M.S. 1995. Agriculture, food security and employment: Changing times, uncommon opportunities. Nature and Resources, 31(1): 2-15.
  
  UNU/INRA, 1997. UNU in Africa: Managing Natural Resources for Sustainable Development. The United Nations University Institute for Natural Resources in Africa, Accra.
  
  Young, M.D. 1995. Inter-generational equity, the precautionary principle and ecologically sustainable development. Nature and Resources, 31(1): 16-27.

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