Prospects and problems of trading in medicinal plants: A Case study for Madagascar

Prospects and problems of trading in medicinal plants:

A Case study for Madagascar

Philippe Rasoanaivo

Institut Malgache de Recherches Appliquées, B.P. 3833

101-Antananarivo, Madagascar

Tel/fax: 261-20 22 304 70; E-mail: rafita@dts.mg

 

Introduction

Because of its unique ecosystem diversity, Madagascar has a rich and diversified flora with an unparalleled degree of endemism. More than 85% of the species estimated at 13,000, 25% of the genera and 8 entire families are endemic to the island. Approximately 4,000 species have been reported to have medicinal values while nearly 50 have been exported commercially. Furthermore, this great ecosystem diversity allows most medicinal plants used in modern medicine to be cultivated in at least one region of the island.

 

Research on collection, introduction and cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants was started during the French colonial period. However, the export of medicinal plants with significant economic importance in the modern system of medicine became really effective in 1970s. Few medicinal plants have been able to withstand 30 years competition, and therefore are still exported on a large scale. Others have been sporadically exported for various reasons. Some plants are gaining interest while others were completely abandoned for export. In the present paper, I will identify, case-by-case, relevant problems of trading in medicinal plants in Madagascar, and then I will give useful suggestions for the prospects of medicinal plant production and export in the island. References cited are mainly from published data available in Madagascar but not easily found in, nor indexed by the computerised databases.

 

Medicinal plants that have been, or may be, the object of a large-scale export in Madagascar can be divided roughly into 6 categories:

 

i)             Medicinal plants traditionally exported in large quantity: Catharanthus roseus, Centella asiatica, Prunus africana, Drosera ramentacea, Rauwolfia confertiflora and Voacanga thouarsii,

ii)            Medicinal plants that are gaining interest in the international market: Calophyllum inophyllum, Siegesbeckia orientalis,

iii)           Medicinal plants more or less sporadically exported: Acacia decurrens, Aphloia theaformis, Areca madagascariensis, Catharanthus lanceus, Catharanthus ovalis, Harungana madagascariensis, Hazunta modesta, Hydrocotyle asiatica, Mangifera indica, Medenia nobilis, Moringa sp, Ravenea rivularis, other Palm seeds,

iv)           Medicinal plants of potential economic value: Hibiscus sabdariffa, Aloe vahombe, Erythrophleum couminga,

v)            Plants worthy of further prospecting: Uncarina species, Symphonia fasiculata, Delonix adansonioides, Phyla nodiflora, Erigeron naudinii, Pterocaulon decurrens, Hiberta coriacea, Lemuropisum edule, Spilanthes acmellla,

vi)           Organically grown plants. 

I)- Medicinal plants traditionally exported in large quantities

Catharanthus roseus

Formerly called Vinca rosea, Catharanthus roseus is by far the most exported plant in terms of quantity. An average of 550 tons/year has been shipped from 1972 to 2000.

 

1) Basic scientific background

Investigations into the hypoglycaemic properties attributed to the Madagascan periwinkle in traditional medicines led in 1955 to the incidental discovery of tumour-inhibiting properties. Two dimer indole alkaloids, named Vinblastine and Vincristine, are particularly important because of their antineoplastic action. They are used in modern medicine as anticancer drugs. The bioactive alkaloid content of the plant is very low: approximately 2 tons of dried leaves yield 1 g of active alkaloids, which is equivalent to the supply needed for a six week treatment of a child. This stimulated the hemisynthesis of vinblastine derivatives in 1960s. Great efforts and skills invested in this work led in 1976 to the successful synthesis of Navelbine^® (5’-nor-anhydrovinblastine) endowed with selective therapeutic actions. The two starting materials for the hemisynthesis of Navelbine^®, namely vindoline and catharanthine, have hitherto been exclusively found in the leaves of some Catharanthus species.

The roots and stems of the plant contain two alkaloids called Raubasine and Serpentine. The latter is transformed into Raubasine by catalytic reduction. Raubasine is used in modern medicine as an antihypertensive drug and tranquilizer.

 

2) Ecology

            C. roseus can grow under various ecological conditions in Madagascar. The natural habitat is likely the deep South, starting from Beloha, Tsihombe, Ambovombe to Amboasary, and this region is considered to be the main producer of the periwinkle. It is also found growing wild along the east coast from Antalaha to Tolagnaro. The first voucher specimen of C. roseus, kept at the French Museum of Natural History, was collected in Tolagnaro by Etienne de Flacourt between 1648 and 1653.

 

3) Production and export in Madagascar

i)- Historical background

The exploitation of C. roseus began in 1967 in the south region of the island. STHELE and TROPIC-IMPORT were the first exporting companies. The periwinkle was collected in the wild. In 1970, STHELE started a large-scale cultivation (1,000 hectares) in Ranopiso (42 km North-West from Tolagnaro). At the same period, HOESCHT initiated the cultivation of the species in Bejofo (Alaotra) on the areas of 60 hectares. This was abandoned because the yield was comparatively low with respect to that from the wild-harvested plant in the South.

In the period 1972-1973, a vast campaign was launched by STHELE, SEAMP and the German NGO MISEREOR for the cultivation of C. roseus at community levels in the deep South. This was followed by massive deforestation to leave the place for the cultivation. Another exporting company, PRONATEX SOAVOANY, was created at that period.

In 1973, following probably the political change in Madagascar, STHELE sold his exploitation to BOEHRINGER MANNHEIM who, through SEAR (Societe d’Exploitation Agricole de Ranopiso) took in charge the cultivation in Ranopiso. This cultivation was not really successful.

In 1975-1976, 7 companies, namely ATSIMO-EXPORT, IMRA-SOAMADINA, PRONATEX SOAVOANY, SEVPROMA (formerly STHELE, and becoming subsidiary company of PRONATEX SOAVOANY), Ets RAZANATSEHENO, SOPRAEX, and VOKATRA VOAFANTINA were actively engaged in the export business of medicinal plants, including C. roseus. In 1984, 3 other companies, CODIMEX, COREMA and SOPRACAM joined the list of the periwinkle exporters.

In 1984-1985, PRONATEX SOAVOANY distributed the seeds of the periwinkle to the rural communities of the deep South with the aim of increasing production.

While the Department of Water  & Forestry in Fianarantsoa (south highlands of Madagascar) started the cultivation of the periwinkle between 1973 and 1978 in Ambalavao, Inverni Della Beffa, through the exporting company SODIP-SOPRAEX (formerly SOPRAEX), invested in the building of an extraction factory in the same region. More detailed information on this firm is found in the paragraph dealing with Prunus africana. As a result, root extracts of Catharanthus were exported from 1988 to 1991, then this activity was apparently discontinued.

Since 1988, as a result of a drastic decrease in demand, PRONATEX SOAVOANY has remained the only exporting company of C. roseus in the deep South. However, a new company named PHARMEX has started this year the export of the periwinkle leaves collected in the South-east region (Farafangana and Vangaindrano).

 

ii) Quantity exported from 1967 to 2000, price at rural community levels, FOB prices.

            The annual quantity exported (crude raw materials expressed in tons, and extracts expressed in kilograms) from 1972 to 2000 (30^th October) is indexed in the table below. The quantity exported for the period 1967-1971 was not well-documented, but it was estimated at 30-50 tons/year.

 

The price at rural community levels depends on the offer and demand, but it is generally between 300 and 600 Fmg/kg of partially dried raw material (1 $US = 6,500 Fmg). The FOB price is between 0.75 and 1.2 $US/kg of dried material.

 

 

Plant parts	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981
Roots	743 743	553 553	385 385	1,134 1,134	709 709	777 777	487 487	290 290 473	783 783 445	772 779 779
Leaves	0 0	0 0	102 102	71 71	50 50	0.5 0.5	147 147	295 295 ?	0.8 0.8 131	0 0.3 ?

 

 

 

Plant parts	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
Roots   Root extract	797 797 1,047	756 375 1106	1,095 568 947	576 635 743	1,007 672 852	485 340 42	200 4.5   9,321	315 320   4,210	550 317   8,025	400 500   0
Leaves	0 0 ?	0.5 0.5 ?	0 3 63	0 3 ?	0 150 ?	110 160 ?	40 120	0.1 0	110 133	51 100

 

 

Plant parts	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000
Roots	250 450	500 750	200 400	200 274	na	na	na	na 354	na 311
Leaves	0 25	1 18	1 64	20 58	na	na	na	na 200	na 98

Sources:

Normal script : data from Circonscription Inter Régional des Eaux et Forêts (CIREF)/Tolagnaro, (see reference 1),

In italics : data from Direction des Eaux et Forêts (DEF)/Antananarivo, (see reference 4),

In bold : data from Centre National d’Application de Recherches Pharmaceutiques (CNARP/ Antananarivo), (see reference 2).

na: not available.

 

There are some discrepancies in the data published by different concerned state departments. I observed for example that the specification between roots and leaves are not always clearly stated in the official forms. To reduce thus the errors, the quantities of roots and leaves exported for each year have been combined. The graphs below give at glance an acceptable picture of C. roseus export.

 

 

iii) Collection and distribution channels

C. roseus is mainly harvested in the wild. Large-scale cultivation has not been very successful. According to the regulation, the Ministry of Water and Forestry issues a collection permit to the exporters upon request. This permit is given under the conditions that harvesting and collecting must be done in a manner that does not deplete or endanger the species. The exporters make a contract with middlemen who are in charge of buying up raw materials from the rural farmers and gathering them. The exporters buy raw materials from the middlemen. The collection and distribution channels are summarised as follows:

 

Harvesting and collecting at rural population levels

 

Middlemen

 

Exporters who have a permit collection

 

Importers

 

Pharmaceutical industries, traders

 

For the last ten years, countries importing roots and leaves of C. roseus originating from Madagascar include Belgium, France and Germany. The main importing companies are SEDAHERB (France) and ROOZEN (Germany).

 

4) Prospects and problems

The deep south of Madagascar has a potential for 1,000 tons of C. roseus per year without affecting the sustainability of the species. This was attained in 1975 and during the period 1982-1986, although there are important discrepancies between the data from CIREF/Tolagnaro [1] and those previously published [2, 3, 4]. Increase in harvesting was due to the participatory approach involving the rural community levels, and this contributes significantly to the income of the concerned populations. However, as the periwinkle can adequately grow under various ecological conditions, it has been cultivated in several countries, i.e. Kenya and Mauritius (in the past), India, Mexico and even Texas, for commercial purposes. Raw materials harvested in the wild from Madagascar have no specific advantages to face the international competition.

            Since the last decade, PRONATEX SOAVOANY has had a monopoly over the export of C. roseus from Madagascar, but the average annual quantity exported represents only half of the potential. Pierre FABRE Laboratories in France has the monopoly for the exploitation of Navelbine^®. Madagascar is one of the main providers of the periwinkle leaves to this company, and this has given a new impetus for the export of this species. However, investing in the production of the periwinkle appears to be a risk because the international market is unpredictable and unstable. The market penetration of new suppliers has been relatively limited.

            The potential exists in Madagascar for the production and the export of C. roseus, but importing companies should guarantee a sustainable demand.

 

 

5) References

 

1. JJ Andriamanalintsoa (1996) Contribution à l’étude de la production de la pervenche de Madagascar : cas d’Ambovombe, d’Amboasary-Sud, de Beloha et de Tsihombe, Mémoire de Fin d’Etude d’Ingéniorat en Agronomie, 135 p.

2.     EA Rakotobe, T Razafindrabeaza, SS Randrianasolo, R Andriantsiferana (1988) Remarques sur les données relatives aux dix dernières années d’exportation de plantes médicinales, Archive du Centre National d’Application de Recherches Pharmaceutiques, 7, 27-41.

3.     P Rasoanaivo (1990) Rain forests of Madagascar: source of industrial and medicinal plants, AMBIO, 19, 421-424.

4.     P Rasoanaivo (1996) Plantes médicinales et aromatiques à valeur économique à Madagascar, Cahiers du CITE, 4, 5-19.

 

Centella asiatica

 

Centella asiatica (Gotu kola) is ranked as the second medicinal plant of economic value in Madagascar in terms of the annual quantity exported. Madagascar is one of the main suppliers to the world market. An average of 50 tons/years of dried leaves has been exported annually since 1972.

 

1) Basic scientific background

As a follow-up of the traditional use of C. asiatica in the treatment of leprosy, one triterpene glycoside named asiaticoside and two triterpene aglycones, asiatic acid and madecassic acid, were found to be the bioactive constituents. They act in synergy to promote wound healing. They are used in modern medicine for the treatment of ulcers and venous insufficiency under the trade name Madecassol^®. Further investigations of the crude or purified extracts of this species led to the discovery of their collagen regeneration properties. This has been exploited for cosmetic purposes. Active principles of C. asiatica (CA), their chemical composition and their biological activities are summarised in the table below [1].

 

Active principles	Chemical compositions	Areas of application
E.T.C.A. Titrated extract of CA	Asiaticoside: 40% Asiatic and madecassic acid: 60%	Wound healing Venous insufficiency Cosmetics
Glycosides of CA	Asiaticoside: ~ 20% Madecassoside: ~ 55% Others (not identified): ~ 25%	Cosmetics
Asiaticoside		Cosmetics
E.M.A.C.A.	Asiaticoside: ³ 55% Asiatic acid: ³ 5% Madecassic acid: ³ 10% Others (not identified): £ 30%	Cosmetics
E.P.C.A. Purified extract of CA	Asiaticoside: 14-22% Madecassoside: 14-22% Asiatic acid: 3-6% Madecassic acid: 3-6% NaCl: 20% Others (not identified): ~ 40%	Cosmetics
E.R.C.A. Refined extract of CA	Asiaticoside: ³ 20% Madecassoside: ³20% Asiatic acid: ³4% Others (not identified): £50%	Cosmetics

 

2) Ecology

C. asiatica is found growing wild in humid areas, especially near rice fields or shaded slopes, in the Central highlands and middle eastern regions of Madagascar. Ecological requirements for good harvesting include, but are not limited to, the hot and rainy seasons (October to April) at around 900 m altitude. In such cases, the yield and relative ratios of the relevant bioactive constituents reach the optimum values. At this point, the eastern regions of Madagascar fulfil the required ecological conditions, and this is the main reason why C. asiatica originating from this part of Madagascar, if well harvested and processed, has all advantages for commercial purposes. Otherwise, under different ecosystems, like in India, the yield in asiaticoside is much lower than that found in the Madagascan variety [2]. Furthermore, extracts of C. asiatica from Madagascar is reported to have pronounced antiradical and antielastase activities compared to that from India, and these activities are not related to asiaticoside [2].

 

3) Production and export

i) Historical background

The name of the Institut Malgache de Recherches Appliquées (IMRA) and its founder Prof Rakoto-Ratsimamanga, for which SOAMADINA is the commercial branch, are associated with C. asiatica. IMRA was the first exporter of this plant, and is still the main supplier to the European market. He initiated in 1973 the cultivation of this species in the central highlands, at Andranovaky, 40 km west from Antananarivo [3], but the results were not successful. Because of the increase in demand, other exporting companies entered the business. In 1995, a dozen companies were known to export this plant. Some abandoned the competition, and at present, six have remained in the business.

In keeping with its mission, SODIP-SOPRAEX exports the crude alcohol extract of C. asiatica.

 

ii) Quantity exported from 1972 to 2000, price at rural community levels, FOB prices.

The annual quantity exported (expressed in tons for crude raw material, and in kilograms for extracts) from 1972 to 2000 is reported in the table below. C. asiatica is exclusively harvested in the wild. The prices at rural community levels are within the range of 500-900 Fmg/kg of fresh leaves, according to the offer and demand. The FOB price is between 2 to 6.2 $US/kg of dried leaves.

 

 

Plant parts	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981
Leaves	48.5	40.2	42.9	17.7	55.0	80.0	80.1	83.9 66.1	56.7 48.6	48.6 48.6

 

 

Plant parts	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
Leaves	46.8 45.4	16.2 28.6	30.3 37.1	73.0 96.6	103.5 82.5	8.2 20.8	26.1 26.1	21.8	35.1	63.9

 

 

Plant parts	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000
Leaves Leaves extracts	99.1	40.3	80.6	56.3	na	na	na	89.6	67.2 5,202

 

Sources:

Direction des Eaux et Forêts, Antananarivo;

In italics, data from reference 2 of Catharanthus roseus table.

iii) Collection and distribution channels

 

            Like the case of Catharanthus roseus, the collection permit is issued to the exporters who buy raw materials from the rural farmers. Here, middlemen appear not to be operational. Collection and distribution channels are summarised as follows:

 

            Harvesting and collecting at rural farmer levels

 

 

 

Exporters who are the official permit holders

 

 

 

Importers

(Brokers, traders, pharmaceutical industry, cosmetic industry)

 

For the last ten years, importing countries include Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Monaco, South Korea and Spain.

 

 

4) Problems and prospects

            Madagascar has a potential for 100 tons/year of dried leaves of C. asiatica sustainably harvested in the wild. The ecological and edaphic requirements for the optimum growth of this species do not allow cultivation at a reasonable cost. Contrary to the export monopoly of the Madagascan periwinkle by PRONATEX SOAVOANY, nearly ten companies share the export of C. asiatica to the world market.

            As C. asiatica grows in humid areas, rapid drying of the plant is of particular importance to avoid enzymatic degradation that drastically affects the yields and ratios of the bioactive principles.

            Because of the specific contents in bioactive constituents that may act in synergy, importers seek preferably for C. asiatica from Madagascar. It is possible to expand the niche marketing of this species.

 

5) References

 

1. A Loiseau (1998) Impieghi in cosmetologia di Centella asiatica, Erboristeria Domani, 6, 66-69.

2.     F Rouillard-Gueilec, JR Robin, A Rakoto-Ratsimamanga, S Ratsimamanga-Urverg, P Rasoanaivo, Etude comparative de Centella asiatica d’origine malgache et d’origine indienne, Acta Botanica Gallica, 144 (4), 489-493.

3.     ER Ramiaramanana (1984) Contribution à l’étude du Centella asiatica de Madagascar « Talapetraka », Mémoire de Fin d’Etudes d’Ingéniorat en Agronomie, 97 p.

 

Prunus africana (= Pygeum africanum)

 

Madagascar used to be the second producer of Prunus africana after Cameroon. Because of destructive harvesting techniques and lack of policy and strategic approaches for sustainable exploitation, drastic loss of specific populations of this species has occurred in Madagascar. This has led to several investigations as judged by relevant papers recently published on the species, including the Madagascan case study [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. The paragraphs below will summarise relevant points.

 

1) Basic scientific background

            As a follow-up of its traditional uses in the treatment of the enlargement of the prostate, complex lipophilic constituents of P. africana were shown to be effective in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. At present, 19 different drugs, including the most known named TADENAN^®, are made from lipophilic extracts of P. africana.

 

2) Ecology

            The ecological distribution of P. africana is from the mid-altitude to mountain regions of the centre-east to the north-east and centre-north of Madagascar.

 

3) Production and export

i) Historical background

            STHELE appears to have been the first exporter of P. africana in Madagascar. When it was sold in 1973 and took another name, SEVPROMA (which was in fact a subsidiary company of PRONATEX SOAVOANY created at the same period), the newly named company continued the export of the species. A few years later, another company named SOPRAEX entered the business of exporting P. africana.

            It is worth mentioning that DEBAT Laboratories who deposited the patent on P. africana extracts wanted at first to establish a factory in Madagascar to make extracts from the plant. Technical and political constraints at that time led them to decide otherwise. Indeed, it was found that the Madagascan extract contained one additional constituent detected by chromatographic analysis with respect to the Cameroon sample. It was consequently believed that P. africana originating from Madagascar was of much lower quality than that from Cameroon.

            Meanwhile, probably as a follow-up of the DEBAT initiative, SOPRAEX launched in 1975 the idea of building a multipurpose factory for the extraction of various medicinal plants in Madagascar in collaboration with the Italian company INVERNI Della BEFFA. It took nearly one decade before this idea was put into reality. The new and modern factory named SODIP-SOPRAEX, built in Fianarantsoa was operational in 1988. The Malagasy State has partly the control. It was conceived to process, not only Prunus africana, but all medicinal plants, including but not limited to, Centella asiatica, Catharanthus roseus. One unit is capable to process 4 tons of Prunus africana powder per day. All solvents are imported from Europe.

After successful research to remove the additional constituent, the company started in 1992 the extraction of P. africana, with quantity amounting to 200 tons/year at the beginning, then increasing to 500 tons/year a couple of years later, and now it peaks at nearly 1,000 tons. It turned out that, this time, the Madagascan extract had a much higher yield and quality than the Cameroon extract, and was consequently appreciated in the international market. Overall, the content in lipophilic extracts is low: 210-220 kg of dried barks yield 1 kg of such extracts.

            As the politico-economy in Madagascar is moving with time, SODIP-SOPRAEX has been recently privatised under the new name INDENA Madagascar. It is likely that the Italian partner has the control of all operations.

 

Regarding the export of crude raw materials, SEVPROMA and PRONATEX SOAVOANY have hitherto been the main companies involved in the business. Other companies, namely CODIMEX, COREMA, VATOMANGA, attempted to export P. africana but they were not very successful in penetrating the international market. Apparently, the competition seems to be now between the export of the dichloromethane extract by SODIP-SOPRAEX and the crude raw material by PRONATEX SOAVOANY and its subsidiary company SEVPROMA.

 

ii) Quantity exported from 1972 to 2000, price at rural community levels, FOB prices.

            The annual quantity exported (crude raw material expressed in tons and extract in kilograms) is given in the table below.

 

 

Plant parts	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981
Stem barks	231.5	124.8	201.9	96.8	18	95.7	145.7	128 75	130.3 115.2	150.6 150.6

 

 

Plant parts	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
Stem barks	1,977 117.6	25 74.1	32.6 32.6	0 0	0 0	0 0	0 0	0	0	0

 

 

Plant parts	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000
Stem barks Lipophilic extracts	0 1,180	0 1,410	0 1,000	0 1,100	122 4,162	112 4,454	95 1,800	161.3 1,100	192.2 2,380

 

Sources:

Direction des Eaux et Forêts, Antananarivo;

In italics, data from reference 2 of Catharanthus roseus table

           

Surprisingly, the export peaked to reach 1,977 tons in 1982 according to the data given by the Department of Water and Forestry. The reliability of this data may be questionable. Since the inscription of P. africana under the CITES control in 1996, reliable data are now available for the export of crude raw material and extracts. The maximum quantity exported in barks has not exceeded 240 tons per year since the exploitation of P. africana in Madagascar, while the extracts peaked to reach 4,454 kg in 1997 which roughly corresponded to nearly 1,000 tons of dried leaves. The price at local farmer levels is 125-200 Fmg/kg of fresh barks but this may vary significantly according to the offer and demand, while the FOB price is 1.7-2 $US/kg of dried barks.

To avoid any distortion of the graph, the quantity exported in 1982 was not put in the data processing for the graph below.

 

 

iii) Collection and distribution channels

            The exploitation of P. africana, either for local uses or industrial purposes, is exclusively based on wild collection. The Ministry of Water and Forestry issues a collection permit, not only to the exporters but also to independent collectors, upon request. Independent collectors establish local markets in the exploitation area, buy up barks from local farmers and transport them to the exporters. The permit is given under the conditions that harvesting and collecting must be done in a manner that does not deplete or endanger the species. In most cases however, the collection of the barks has not been in accordance with the directives. The cutting down (and even uprooting) of plants to easily remove all stem barks and root barks, including young trees to inflate collections, has been becoming the norm as a result of the get-rich-quick attitude of many collectors.

            Raw materials are mainly exported to France while extracts are shipped to INDENA in Milano or its subsidiary firms outside Italy.

 

4) Problems and prospects

            Ecologically, the exploitation of P. africana has led to an over-exploitation of the natural stock in Madagascar. Because of the shortage in supply in barks from Madagascar, SODIP-SOPRAEX had to import from Cameroon 600 tons in 1994 and 112 tons in 1999. In 1997, based on data given in the table above, more than 1,000 tons of P. africana were collected in Madagascar. The situation seems to have triggered off a positive response from exporting companies and concerned authorities. There is now a consensus to participate in a national programme to look at the issue of sustainable harvesting and the cultivation of P. africana. It is now generally admitted that a large-scale cultivation is the only way to sustainably exploit this medicinal plant for industrial purposes. To this end, appropriate ecosystems exist in Madagascar. However, some exporters question the profitability of a long term investment in the cultivation of P. africana. It will take 20 years or more before one plant is commercially exploited. Meanwhile, Serenoa repens from which the drug Permixon^® is made is gaining interest in the international market as a serious substitute for P. africana.

 

5) References

1.     JD Ravelomanana (1994) Analyse de l’exploitation de Pygeum africanum, Mémoire de Certificat de Fin d’Etudes Pédagogique, 81 p.

2.     S Walter and JCR Rakotonirina (1995) L’exploitation de Prunus africana à Madagascar, Direction des Eaux et Forêts.

3.     P Ravelomanantsoa (1996) L’exploitation économico-industrielle de Pygeum africanum, Cahiers du CITE 4, 63-64.

4.     S Walter (1997) The situation of Prunus africana in Madagascar, Medicinal Plant Conservation Newsletter 3, 14-15.

5. M Cunningham, AB Cunningham and U Schippmann (1997) Trade in Prunus africana and the implementation of CITES, German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, 68 p.

6.     AJ Simons, IK Dawson, B Duguma and Z Tchoundjeu (1998) Passing problems: prostate and Prunus, Herbalgam 43, 49-53.

7.     BA Rajaonarivony (1998) Valorisation et contribution à la relance de la culture de Prunus africana, Mémoire de Fin d’Etudes d’Ingéniorat en Agronomie, 82 p.

8.     N Quansah (1999) Prunus africana: harvest and resources management in Madagascar, Medicinal Plant Conservation Newsletter 5, 18-19.

Drosera ramentacea (= Drosera madagascariensis)

            Drosera ramentacea has been the object of a regular export in Madagascar although the quantity varies substantially from one year to another.

 

1) Basic scientific background

For long time, some Drosera species have been used to treat coughs and various respiratory diseases. As a scientific follow-up of the traditional uses, aerial parts of the European species D. rotundifolia were found to contain several phenolic and quinone constituents that are stated to possess antispasmodic, demulcent (what does that mean?) and expectorant activities. The crude extract is used as an ingredient in several pharmaceutical formulations, of which nearly 60 are commercialised in France, for chronic bronchitis, asthma, pertussis, tracheitis. The crude drug Herba Droserae (sundew herb) is now rarely obtained from its traditional source, D. rotundifolia. Examination of the marketed drug shows that most is now obtained from D. ramentacea originating from Madagascar [1]. It is however believed that the Madagascan Drosera is less active than the European species.

 

2) Ecology

            D. ramentacea grows in humid areas, mainly swamps, located in the central highlands of Madagascar.

 

3) Production and export

i) Historical background

            This is not well documented. It is even surprising to note that the School of Agronomy in Madagascar has not investigated this species within the framework of PhD dissertation. It is not either described in the African Pharmacopoeia. Based on information collected from exporters, it appears that the export of D. ramentacea started in the 1970s.

 

ii) Quantity exported from 1972 to 2000, price at rural community levels, FOB prices.

            Annual quantity exported expressed in tons is given in the table below. At the rural farmer level, the price is 350-500 Fmg/kg of fresh aerial parts. The FOB price ranges from 1.9 to 5.0 $US/kg of dried raw material.

 

 

Plant parts	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981
Aerial parts	7.7	6.7	10.4	9.4	18.6	14	14.9	14.2 9.7	4.7 9.1	1.3 2.3

 

 

Plant parts	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
Aerial parts	3.5 7.8	9 11.1	1 3.8	5.5 5.5	10.5 11.2	3.5 5.4	2.7 4.2	5.5	15	4.5

 

 

 

 

Plant parts	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000
Aerial parts	2	21.1	15.2	18.2	na	na	na	2.7	3

 

Source:

Direction des Eaux et Forêts, Antananarivo;

In italics, data from reference 2 of Catharanthus roseus table

 

 

iii) Collection and distribution channels

            They are practically similar to those of Centella asiatica. Six companies are currently engaged in the export of D. ramentacea in Madagascar. For the last ten years, the predominant importing country is France.

 

4) Problems and prospects

            There has been a drastic decrease in demand over the last five years. It appears that, due to indiscriminate harvesting and inadequate drying, the Madagascan Drosera does not meet the quality requirements. Buyers have turned to Asian suppliers.

 

5) References

 

1      P Duquenois (1957) A propos du Drosera de Madagascar, Drosera ramentacea, Annales Pharmaceutiques Françaises 15, 599-601.

 

Rauwolfia confertiflora

            Rauwolfia confertiflora used to be a promising Madagascan plant as a source of reserpiline. Several factors have led to a decline in its export.

 

1) Basic scientific background

            For centuries, the natives of the Himalayan foothills have used the roots of Rauwolfia sp for the control of hypertension, epilepsy, insomnia, fevers, cholera, dizziness and headaches. The plant found its way into chemical laboratories, and research culminated in the discovery of reserpine which was found to be the main active principle of the Rauwolfia species. R. serpentina and R. vomitoria appear to be the most important sources of reserpine and other related alkaloids namely rescinamine, ajmalicine, serpentine and ajmaline. They are the raw materials for the extraction of pure alkaloids. Roots and stem barks serve for the preparation of standardised crude extracts. Roots are processed to give powdered Rauwolfia. All these preparations are used as antihypertensive and sedative drugs.

            It was found however that reserpine exhibited immuno-depressive effects in the long-term uses. Much attention was given to a closely related alkaloid named reserpiline which retained all the beneficial effects of reserpine but was devoid of immuno-depressive effects. R. confertiflora growing wild in Madagascar appears to be an important source of reserpiline and the above-mentioned related alkaloids.

 

2) Ecology

            R. confertiflora is restricted to the semi-arid region of southern Madagascar.

 

3) Production and export

i) Historical background

            This is not well documented. It seems that PRONATEX SOAVOANY was the first exporter of this plant and still remains the main supplier to the Western market.

 

ii) Quantity exported from 1972 to 2000, price at rural community levels, FOB prices.

            Annual quantity exported expressed in tons is given in the table below Pricing at rural farmers is around 200 Fmg/kg of partially dried barks. The FOB price is 0.7-1.1 $US/kg of dried raw material.

 

 

Plant parts	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981
Barks	0	0	114.8	125.1	512.4	40	60	23.1 47.9	0 0	115 115.3

 

 

Plant parts	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
Barks	25.3 25.3	0 0	50 75	0 0	60.1 90.1	0.15 0	2 0	50.4	0	11

 

 

 

Plant parts	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000
Barks	0.51	6	0	35	na	na	na	0	0

 

Source:

Direction des Eaux et Forêts, Antananarivo; I

In italics, data from reference 2 of Catharanthus roseus table

 

 

 

 

iii) Collection and distribution channels

            They are practically similar to those described for Catharanthus roseus or Centella asiatica, depending on the exporting firms. For the last ten years, importing markets include France, Belgium and Germany.

 

4) Problems and prospects

            The pharmaceutical use of Rauwolfia plants is declining, and consequently the export market of R. confertiflora is quite uncertain. Competition with other Rauwolfia species originating from Asian countries is also strong, leading to the saturation of the market. Furthermore, careless harvesting has resulted in the depopulation of R. confertiflora. It is unlikely that the world market of R. confertiflora will experience any significant growth in the years ahead.

 

5) References

1. Market for selected medicinal plants and their derivatives, International Trade Centre UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva, 1974, p.113.

 

Voacanga thouarsii

            The discovery of the transformation of tabersonin into vincamine in two steps opened a new way for the commercial exploitation of Voacanga seeds [1]. To this end, V. thouarsii abundantly available in Madagascar turned out to be a promising raw material.

 

1) Basic scientific background

            As a follow-up of the traditional uses of the European periwinkle Vinca minor, vincamine was found to be the active constituent. It is used for the treatment of cerebral vascular disorders. The yield however precludes any commercial exploitation of this plant, and vincamine was first commercialised as a synthetic compound. In 1972, the discovery of the easy rearrangement of tabersonin into vincamine gave a new impetus for this drug. Seeds of Voacanga thouarsii and Voacanga africana appear to be the best sources of tabersonin. It has been subsequently used as a starting material for the partial synthesis of vincamine on a commercial scale.

 

2) Ecology

            V. thouarsii is found abundantly wild-growing in the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, but also in the west part of the island, mainly in the Ambongo region.

 

3) Production and export

i) Historical background

            Any reliable document on this topic has not been found.

 

ii) Quantity exported from 1972 to 2000, price at rural community levels, FOB prices.

            Annual quantity exported expressed in tons is given in the table below. The pricing at rural farmers is 500 Fmg/kg of partially dried seeds. The FOB price is 2.3-3.9 $US/kg of dried seeds.

 

 

Plant parts	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981
Seeds	0	5.6	17.1	8.6	21.8	18.9	26.2	25.4 25.4	69.2 66.2	34.6 37.8

 

 

Plant parts	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
Seeds	28.6 28.4	6.2 6.2	3.9 3.9	0.1 0.1	10.1 10.1	10 0	6.2 0.9	5.8	4.9	0.43

 

 

Plant parts	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000
Seeds	0.26	0	0.22	0.31	na	na	na	0	0.062

 

Sources:

Direction des Eaux et Forêts, Antananarivo;

In italics: data from reference 2 of Catharanthus roseus table

 

iii) Collection and distribution channels

            They are practically similar to those described for Catharanthus roseus. For the last ten years, the only importing country is Germany.

 

4) Problems and prospects

There has been a serious decline in the export of Voacanga seeds since 1991. Although V. thouarsii originating from Madagascar has a higher yield in tabersonine than V. africana, it is no longer able to compete due to the poor service offered by exporting companies, mainly in the long delay of supply. Importers have turned to the Cameroon suppliers which appear to be well organised. Synthetic derivatives of vincamine are also gaining interest in the pharmaceutical market.

 

5) References

1. B Zsadon (1982) Tabersonin : potential raw material of vegetable origin suitable for the partial synthesis of indolic alkaloids used in pharmaceutical industry and research work, Herba Hungarica 21, 217-223.

 

II)- Medicinal plants that are gaining interest in the international market:

 

            Based both on data provided by the Department of Water and Forestry of Madagascar and personal inquiries, I have made a provisional list of plants ranked in categories II and III (cf. introduction). Annual quantities exported for the period 1972-2000 are given in table 1. The following paragraphs give a brief background of each plant.

 

Siegesbeckia orientalis (Compositae)

 

S. orientalis, widespread in the Indian Ocean islands, is found growing wild in the central highlands and the eastern part of Madagascar. Its aerial parts are used mainly for wound healing and haemostatis [1a]. Its vernacular names, Satrikoazamaratra in Madagascar (literally meaning: I would prefer not to be wounded), and “guerit-vite” (heal quickly) in Mauritius, reflect its traditional use. Daruty de Grandpre who pioneered the investigation of this plant in Mauritius in the 1880s discovered its remarkable wound healing properties [2a]. In 1885 a pharmacist from La Réunion isolated the active constituent which he named Darutine or Darutoside (in memory of Dr Daruty), but it is likely that other constituents may contribute to the biological activity. Some 50 years ago, Boiteau mentioned the therapeutic potential of this plant [2a]. Extracts are now used mainly in the cosmetic industry. The quantity exported peaked to reach 13.1 tons in 2000. The main importing country is France. The FOB price is 4-5 $US/kg of dried material.

 

Calophyllum inophyllum (Guttiferae)

           

The natural habitat of C. inophyllum (vernacular name: Foraha) in Madagascar is the coastal eastern rainforest. Various traditional uses are assigned to this plant [1c]. Oils from the seeds are reported to possess several pharmaceutical and cosmetic activities, including, but not limited to: anti-inflammatory and antibiotic properties, protection against UV light, anti-aging properties, hair growth promotion, healing burns, hernias, atonic wounds, post-surgical wounds, ulcers, skin cracks, chapped feet and hands, eczema, and acne.

           

It is assumed that, based on comparative chemical constituents, several chemotypes exist according to the geographical distribution [3]. Oils originating from the Madagascan chemotype are believed to be of higher quality than other chemotypes. There have recently been three patents on the use of the oils as protection against UV light and against aging [4]. Nuts were exported in the past, but now they are processed in Madagascar. 1.7 tons of oils have been exported in 2000. This is expected to increase in the years ahead. Importing countries include Belgium, France and Vanuatu. The FOB price is 0.6-1 $US/kg of nuts, and 10-23.9 $US/kg of oil.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1. Annual quantity exported (expressed in tons) for plants described in paragraphs II and III (Source: Direction des Eaux et Forêts, Antananarivo).

1: Acacia decurrens; 2: Aphloia theaformis; 3: Areca madagascariensis; 4: Calophyllum inophyllum (nut); 5: Calophyllum inophyllum (oil); 6: Catharanthus lanceus; 7: Catharanthus ovalis; 8: Harungana madagascariensis; 9: Hazunta modesta; 10: Hydrocotyle asiatica; 11: Mangifera indica; 12: Medenia nobilis; 13: Moringa sp; 14: Ravenea rivularis; 15: Siegesbeckia orientalis.

 

 

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
1972						737	16.2	0.4
1973		32.9				172		3
1974						273		0.3
1975						264		0.07	1.22
1976						540		4
1977				0.2		131		1	0.86
1978						20		2	10
1979				0.09		6		21.5
1980									8.3
1981		0.2		0.6				2.5	0.4
1982				0.3
1983								1.53
1984
1985			18			5						1		0.3
1986			18.4			5						2.25
1987			64.3									0.19
1988		2.6	33.8		0.01							1		0.1
1989		1.15	42.1						1.13			2.75	2.25
1990		1	13.1		0.02				2			8.67	4.57
1991			12.4		0.03			0.9				4.1
1992		1	10.1		0.11							10.5	1.5
1993		4	9.7	8	0.11			1				8.3
1994		1	5.9	1.6	0.27							7.9	0.13		0.2
1995	0.6	2.23	3.5	1.1	0.09							6.3			2.2
1996		1	?		?			?				?			?
1997		2	?		?			?				?			?
1998		?	?		?			?				?			?
1999		1.5	-		?							1.08			5.1
2000		1.5	-		1.7			2			0.7	2.6			13.1

 

 

 

 

III)- Medicinal plants exported sporadically

 

Acacia decurrens (Leguminosae)

Acacia species are known for their tannin contents. It is not documented whether tannins or other constituents are the useful components which justified the export of A. decurrens. The FOB price is 3.85 $US.

 

Aphloia theaformis (Flacourtiaceae)

            This plant (vernacular name Voafotsy) is found in abundance in the central highlands down to the east part of Madagascar. Its leaves are reported to have several uses in Madagascan folk remedies: tonic, depurator, diuretic, febrifuge, against haematuria, gonorrhea, rheumatism and dropsy. A phenolic glycoside named Aphloiol (also called Mangiferine) is believed to be one bioactive constituent, but it is likely that other constituents act in synergy. The crude extract is used as a main ingredient for two drugs (Aphloine^® and Canol^®) and as an anti-oxidant in cosmetic preparations. France is the main importing country. The FOB price is 3.1-4.5 $US/kg of dried leaves.

 

Catharanthus lanceus (Apocynaceae)

            C. lanceus is widespread in the highlands of Madagascar. Its roots contain high amounts of Raubasine and Serpentine. As stated for C. roseus, Raubasine is used as an antihypertensive drug and tranquilizer. There is a potential for 500 tons/year of dried roots in Madagascar. The reasons why the export ceased since 1988 are not clearly documented. The FOB price is 0.6-1 $US/kg of dried roots.

 

Catharanthus ovalis (Apocynaceae)

            The export of this plant was probably in connection with the phytochemical investigation of Catharanthus species conducted by Prof Potier and his team in the 1970s at the Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, France. This investigation led to the discovery of the well-known hemi-synthetic drug Navelbine.

 

Harungana madagascariensis (Guttiferae)

            H. madagascariensis grows in abundance in the central highlands down to the east region of Madagascar, particularly in areas where primitive forests are destroyed. Among its ethnomedicinal uses, the trunk secretes a gum exudate which, mixed with fatty oils, is reported to be efficient in the treatment of scabies and various dermatoses [2b]. Crude extracts of stem bark are used in therapeutics as a regulator of digestive functions. The FOB price is 1.85-2.3 $US/kg of dried barks.

 

Hazunta modesta (Apocynaceae)

            H. modesta grows in the southern region of Madagascar. This plant contains several indole alkaloids, of which one was reported to have significant anticancer activity. The investigation of this plant was part of the active research activities conducted by Prof Potier and colleagues in the 1970s on Madagascan Apocynaceae. After pre-clinical investigations, clinical trials were carried out at the Department of Oncology headed by Prof G Mathe at Villejuif, France [5]. It turned out that the level of antineoplastic activity precluded further development of the compound. Crude alkaloids are used in the pharmaceutical industry as an appetite suppressant and to treat obesity. The FOB price is 1-1.2 $US/kg of dried barks.

 

Hydrocotyle asiatica (Umbelliferae)

            H. asiatica is found in abundance in humid areas, along small streams, in rice fields. There was a confusion on the botanical identity of this species with the closely related plant Centella asiatica. Triterpene and saponin constituents of the two species are reported to be similar, and as such, H. asiatica appears to be a good substitute for C. asiatica for the isolation of the triterpene contents. There is a potential for 20 tons of dried leaves per year in Madagascar. The range of FOB prices is similar to that of C. asiatica.

 

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae)

            The leaves of M. indica contain several phenolic compounds. The industrial uses of this plant are not documented, but it is supposed that the phenolic contents may be used as an anti-oxidant in the cosmetic industry. The FOB price is 3.85 $US/kg of dried leaves.

 

Moringa sp (Moringaceae)

            Three Moringa species, M. oleifera, M. hildebrandtii and M. drouhardi, are found growing wild in the south of Madagascar. Nuts are exported for the extraction of the fatty oil contents known for a long time in Europe under the name “Huile de Ben”. PRONATEX SOAVOANY and other private initiatives started large-scale cultivation of these species. The FOB price is 2.3-3.85 $US/kg of dried nuts.

 

Palm seeds

Based on a recent revision of the Madagascan Palms, 171 species are present in Madagascar, of which 166 are endemic to the island. Many of them are confined to the humid rainforests of the east coasts.

 

Seeds of Areca madagascariensis and Medenia nobilis have been the object of a continuous export. The FOB price is 2.3-3.8 $US/kg of dried seeds. Other Palm seeds, namely from Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, Bismarckia nobilis, Chrysalidocarpus fibrosus, Chrysalidocarpus isalo, Dypsis hirtula, Halmoorea trispatha, Lemurophoenix halleusii, Marojejya darianii, Marojejya insignis, Neodypsis ceraceus, Neodypsis decaryi, Neodypsis lastelliana, Ravenea glauca, Ravenea rivularis, Ravenea xerophila and Vonitra thouarsiana have been also sporadically exported. It appears that Palm seeds of Madagascar may have a great potential for increasing export in the near future.

 

IV)- Medicinal plants of potential economic value

 

            In this paragraph, I wish to mention medicinal plants which, on account of either the international market or their pharmacological activities, may have a good chance to be exploited in the near future.

 

 

 Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae)

            H. sabdariffa has been commercially exploited for some time. It is found in tropical and subtropical regions from sea level up to 900 m with a rainfall of about 182 cm during its growing season. There are two main types, but the more important economically is H. sabdariffa var. altissima. The red sorrel is found growing wild in apparently abundant quantity in ecologically appropriate regions of Madagascar. To the best of my knowledge, no attempts have been made to exploit this plant. It is worthwhile first to know whether the Madagascan sorrel belongs to the right variety, and then to evaluate its natural population with the aim of estimating the possible market size.

 

Aloe vahombe (Liliaceae)

            A. vahombe grows in abundance in the south region of Madagascar. As a follow-up of the traditional uses of this species [6], polysaccharides were found to be responsible for the immuno-stimulating activity [7, 8]. Contact was initiated in the past about the possibility of exploiting this species as Aloe vera substitute or as a phytopharmaceutical. This plant deserves further attention.

 

 Erythrophleum couminga (Leguminosae)

            E. couminga is traditionally used as a ordeal poison – it is believed that if a suspect is guilty, he will die after drinking the decoction, but if he is innocent, he will survive. According to a legend, birds which fly over a couminga tree were reported to die immediately [9]. It was found to contain highly cardiotoxic diterpene alkaloids [1b]. Some Italian pharmaceutical firms used to exploit this species commercially as a non-steroidal cardioactive drug, but abandoned the project because of a shortage of plant material from Madagascar [5]. This species may have promise, and as such deserves further investigation regarding its natural population.

 

Cinchona succirubra and Cinchona ledgeriana (Rubiaceae)

            Cinchona species were first introduced in Madagascar in 1896 [10]. Crude extracts were shown to be clinically effective in the treatment of malaria [11]. Further cultivation in the Mandraka region (middle east) and Montagne d’Ambre (North) was found to be successful. The extension of the cultivation is now an urgent priority for the local and regional exploitation of these species as phytoantimalarials.

 

V)- Plants worthy of further prospecting

With nearly 4,000 species reported to be of medicinal value in Madagascar, there is a great potential for further investigations. I have listed below a few species that may find useful applications. They stemmed from personal contacts made by Western importers.

In cosmetics: Uncarina species to treat hair loss, Symphonia fasiculata seeds, Delonix adansonioides, Phyla nodiflora.

As nutraceuticals or food additives: Lemuropisum edule whose seeds are reported to be rich in oils and proteins [12], Spilanthes acmellla which can be cultivated on a large scale.

As medicinals: Erigeron naudinii, Pterocaulon decurrens, Hiberta coriacea.

 

            It is also worth mentioning the export of various succulent or xerophytic plants of the southern region of Madagascar.

 

VI)- Organically grown plants

            There is now a tendency to grow plants organically in Madagascar [13]. These plants grow in their natural habitat without the use of fertilisers and pesticides.

 

 

DISCUSSION

 

            Although there are discrepancies in the data provided by different concerned state institutions, the graphs plotted from the processed data give an acceptable picture of the export of medicinal plants from Madagascar. One characteristic feature is the sinusoidal variations of the export, thus reflecting an unstable and unpredictable market. There are four plausible explanations to this situation:

·         Fluctuation of the international market regarding the end products,

• Decrease in demand for raw materials of Madagascan origin for several reasons,
• International competition,
• Loss of the Madagascan biodiversity.

 

Most raw materials for industrial uses come from developing countries in which political instability or natural disasters sometimes occur. To avoid any shortage of supply, traders and pharmaceutical companies currently adopt a stocking strategy with supplies from multiple sources. New supplies in raw materials thus depend on the stock flow, and this is in connection with the international marketing of the end products. The fluctuation of the market has an unavoidable impact on the supplying companies. Due to the irregularities observed for the demand, they are reluctant to invest in the large-scale and long-term cultivation of medicinal plants. Practically all of them do not have even a stock, and collection starts upon receipt of formal orders from importing firms. In addition, they are well aware that attempts to cultivate some medicinal plants were not very successful. Apart the Madagascan periwinkle which is cultivated in a very limited area in the south-west of the island (Ranopiso), all medicinal plants for export are collected in the wild. Rural farmers thus appear to play a key role in the first stages of the export process. On the farmer’s side however, the problem is perceived otherwise. One of their main activities is the cultivation of rice and other food products for their daily subsistence. Collecting medicinal plants is a subsidiary activity which gives them additional income, but this is perceived to be unsustainable for their daily subsistence. Cultivation of medicinal plants is seen as a risky job because of the uncertainty of the demand. This situation has led to the birth of middlemen in the medicinal plant collection business.

 

            Regarding the decrease in demand for raw materials of Madagascan origin, one main reason is the lack of professionalism of the stakeholders, which has resulted in the:

·         Poor quality of raw materials exported as a result of indiscriminate collecting,

• Variability of the quality as a consequence of wild collecting in different ecological areas,
• Absence of guarantee for a constant quality,
• Inadequate drying process leading to degraded materials,
• Long delay between the order and the supply,

 

All these have led the importing firms to turn to other suppliers. This is particularly relevant to Drosera ramentacea and Voacanga thouarsii. There are now several producers and providers of medicinal plants in different developing countries of the world, and international competition in this area appears to be getting stronger and stronger. Importing countries have preference for the raw materials of Madagascan origin because of their specific contents and low prices. Poor quality and services offered by suppliers may have a negative impact over these advantages.

 

The loss of the biodiversity is also a serious problem in Madagascar. Besides the massive deforestation, anarchic or indiscriminate harvesting and collecting has led to the depopulation of medicinal plants. This is critical for Prunus africana and probably for Rauwolfia confertiflora for which the useful plant parts are those that may lead to destructive harvesting. Strong regulations exist in Madagascar for the sustainable uses of biodiversity, but their implementation is very limited.

 

Another feature of medicinal plant exports from Madagascar is the paradoxical contrast between the rich biodiversity of the island and the lack of diversity of the exported plants. It is the exporting firms that have increased significantly during the last two decades. In lacking the minimum required professionalism, some of them have abandoned the business. It seems thus that businessmen in Madagascar lack creativity. Two syndicates, SYPEAM (Syndicat Professionnels des Producteurs d’Extraits Aromatiques, Alimentaires et Médicinaux de Madagascar) and PROMABIO (Produits Malgaches Biologiques), are actively working to promote the export of plants and related products from Madagascar. In fact, in my opinion, one relevant problem is lack of access to information on the potential uses of plants. PRONATEX SOAVOANY is the only company that has been able to diversify its production, probably because of its privileged relationships with the ROOZEN Company in Germany.

 

What solutions can be offered to revalorise the medicinal plant business in Madagascar? There are no miracle-solutions in this subject which has already been debated in many seminars/conferences held in Madagascar.

 

            One solution offered by the Malagasy Government is the GELOSE approach [14, 15, 16]. GELOSE stands for Gestion Locale Sécurisée. It stemmed from three meetings conjointly organised by the World Bank, the USAID Mission in Madagascar and the French Cooperation. Briefly, the GELOSE consists of both transferring the management of renewable resources to rural communities, and offering them part-ownership of their land. It is not limited to the participatory approach of the rural communities as was done in the past within the Projet de Conservation-Développement Integré (PCDI) [17], it really involves the commitment of the concerned communities. GELOSE is being implemented, and further years are needed before a critical evaluation of this project is done.

 

            Here are some specific plans of action I would like to propose:

·         The cultivation of Prunus africana is now a pressing priority. This plant now gives the highest income for Madagascar, through the value added by the processing of extracts. Exporting companies in collaboration with academic institutions and state departments should join their efforts to deal with this matter.

·          Rauwolfia confertiflora seems to be also threatened. Stakeholders should take the cultivation into consideration before the situation becomes alarming.

·         Centella asiatica and Drosera ramentacea are susceptible to enzymatic degradation. For the time being, I believe that their cultivation is not appropriate, either at the level of local farmers or on an industrial scale. Local farmers should receive continuous training on how to collect and adequately process these plants.

·         The diversification of export products and the search for new niche marketing should receive much attention.

 

The histograms below show comparatively the prices to farmer and the FOB prices for medicinal plants traditionally exported. It is possible that the real FOB prices may be higher than the official data. To make data comparable, I assume that the water loss is 90% for D. ramentacea and C. asiatica, and 50% for the remaining plants.

 

 

            The difference between the two prices deserves much thinking when talking about equitable benefit sharing. How should local communities really benefit from renewable resources?

 

 

References

1.     R Pernet (1957) Les plantes médicinales de Madagascar : catalogue de nos connaissances chimiques et pharmacologiques, Mémoire de l’Institut Scientifique de Madagascar, (a) 7, p. 36 ; (b) 7, p.81 ; (c) : p.68.

2. P Boiteau (1999) Dictionnaire des noms malgaches des végétaux, Editions Alzieu, Grenoble, (a) tome III, p. 303 ; (b) tome I, p. 448.
3. C Boucher, personal communication.
4. C. Boucher, patent N° 95 0912 dated 22/5/1995; patent N° 097 00168 dated 25/21997; international patent N° PCT/BE/98/21 dated 22/2/1998.
5. P Boiteau. Journées des Plantes Médicinales, Tananarive, 4-7 Septembre 1974, p.63-75.
6. P Boiteau (1980) Note sur l’emploi empirique de Aloe vahombe, Archives de l’Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, 48, 94-96.
7. S Solar, H Zeller, N Rasolofonirina, R Coulanges, L Ralamboranto, AA Andriatsimahavandy, LH Rakotovao, JY Ledeaut (1980) Mise en évidence et études des propriétés immunostimulantes d’un extrait isolé et partiellement purifié à partir d’Aloe vahombe, Archives de l’Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, 47, 9-39.
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